ࡱ> IKM| 5@ Ͻbjbj22 XXCT&<<<<XT&`^PPPld t<0222222$R-fV@VPlou,u,u, Pl0u,0u,u,,&*P 0<zbd$ 0Ʃd (`*!Z* (/3u,L]4///VVT&T&Xk, T&T&XWHAT IS INTERNET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Internet  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/sdef_definition.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET - The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the  HYPERLINK "http://searchNetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid11_gci213782,00.html" ARPANET. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to be able to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster. Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative, and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes the Internet is its use of a set of protocols called  HYPERLINK "http://searchNetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid43_gci214173,00.html" TCP/IP (for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Two recent adaptations of Internet technology, the  HYPERLINK "http://searchVB.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid26_gci212377,00.html" intranet and the  HYPERLINK "http://searchNetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid40_gci212089,00.html" extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP protocol. For many Internet users, electronic mail ( HYPERLINK "http://searchMobileComputing.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid8_gci212051,00.html" e-mail) has practically replaced the Postal Service for short written transactions. Electronic mail is the most widely used application on the Net. You can also carry on live "conversations" with other computer users, using Internet Relay Chat ( HYPERLINK "http://searchExchange.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214040,00.html" IRC). More recently, Internet telephony hardware and software allows real-time voice conversations. The most widely used part of the Internet is the  HYPERLINK "http://searchCRM.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid8_gci213391,00.html" World Wide Web (often abbreviated "WWW" or called "the Web"). Its outstanding feature is  HYPERLINK "http://searchWebServices.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212301,00.html" hypertext, a method of instant cross-referencing. In most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in text of a different color than the rest; often this text is also underlined. When you select one of these words or phrases, you will be transferred to the site or page that is relevant to this word or phrase. Sometimes there are buttons, images, or portions of images that are "clickable." If you move the pointer over a spot on a Web site and the pointer changes into a hand, this indicates that you can click and be transferred to another site. Using the Web, you have access to millions of pages of information. Web browsing is done with a Web  HYPERLINK "http://searchVB.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid_gci211708,00.html" browser, the most popular of which are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. The appearance of a particular Web site may vary slightly depending on the browser you use. Also, later versions of a particular browser are able to render more "bells and whistles" such as animation, virtual reality, sound, and music files, than earlier versions. LAST UPDATED: 27 Feb 2006  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Read more about Internet: -  HYPERLINK "http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/whitepapers4/0,293835,sid7,00.html" SearchNetworking.com offers a list of white papers about Internet protocols and technologies.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/searchVB/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Do you have something to add to this definition? Let us know. 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INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/bullet_square_999999.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://searchvb.techtarget.com/originalContent/0,289142,sid8_gci1267336,00.html" Perpetuum updates data visualization, BI reporting tools The company's chart-building tool offers a WYSIWYG designer, while its BI reporting tool has an improved syntax editor and a beefed-up toolbar  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/bullet_square_999999.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://searchvb.techtarget.com/originalContent/0,289142,sid8_gci1267344,00.html" ASP.NET component library adds Ajax support Astron Digital's AspLib component library offers more than 20 components for ASP.NET applications. The library now supports ASP.NET AJAX and offers a...  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/icon_mottInfo.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  RELATED GLOSSARY TERMS Terms from Whatis.com " the  HYPERLINK "http://whatis.techtarget.com" technology online dictionary  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/bullet_square_999999.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://searchwinit.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid1_gci1260234,00.html" canonical name (SearchWinIT.com) A canonical name is the properly denoted host name of a computer or network server... (Continued)  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://media.techtarget.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/bullet_square_999999.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://searchwinit.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid1_gci1266036,00.html" CNAME (SearchWinIT.com) A CNAME specifies an alias or nickname for a canonical name record in a domain name system (DNS) database. (Continued...)  HISTORY OF INTERNET [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=1" \o "Edit section: Before the Internet" edit] Before the Internet  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing" \o "History of computing" History of computing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" \o "History of computing hardware" Hardware before 1960 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_%281960s-present%29" \o "History of computing hardware (1960s-present)" Hardware 1960s to present HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Soviet_Bloc_countries" \o "History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries" Hardware in Soviet Bloc countries HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" \o "History of operating systems" Operating systems HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_software_engineering" \o "History of software engineering" Software engineering HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" \o "History of programming languages" Programming languages HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_graphical_user_interface" \o "History of the graphical user interface" Graphical user interfaceInternet HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" \o "History of the World Wide Web" World Wide Web HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_and_video_games" \o "History of computer and video games" Computer and video games HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" \o "Timeline of computing" Timeline of computing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2400_BC-1949" \o "Timeline of computing 2400 BC-1949" Timeline of computing 2400 BC-1949  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1950-1979" \o "Timeline of computing 1950-1979" 1950-1979  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1980-1989" \o "Timeline of computing 1980-1989" 1980-1989  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1990-forward" \o "Timeline of computing 1990-forward" 1990-  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Computing_timelines" \o "Category:Computing timelines" More timelines...  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_computing" \o "Category:History of computing" More...In the fifties and early sixties, prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_%28telecommunications%29" \o "Gateway (telecommunications)" gateways or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridge" \o "Network bridge" bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" \o "Mainframe computer" mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leased_line" \o "Leased line" leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_RAND" \o "Project RAND" Project RAND to support researchers such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Simon" \o "Herbert Simon" Herbert Simon, in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh%2C_Pennsylvania" \o "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California" \o "Santa Monica, California" Santa Monica, California, on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving" \o "Automated theorem proving" automated theorem proving and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" \o "Artificial intelligence" artificial intelligence. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=2" \o "Edit section: Three terminals and an ARPA" edit] Three terminals and an ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency was renamed to Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972. A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.C.R._Licklider" \o "J.C.R. Licklider" J.C.R. Licklider, articulated the idea in his January 1960 paper,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-Computer_Symbiosis" \o "Man-Computer Symbiosis" Man-Computer Symbiosis. "A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines" which provided "the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions. "J.C.R.Licklider HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-0#_note-0" \o "" [1] In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" \o "United States Department of Defense" United States Department of Defense's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" \o "DARPA" DARPA information processing office, and formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Development_Corporation" \o "System Development Corporation" System Development Corporation in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California" \o "Santa Monica, California" Santa Monica, one for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Genie" \o "Project Genie" Project Genie at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" \o "University of California, Berkeley" University of California, Berkeley and one for the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multics" \o "Multics" Multics project SHOPPING at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" \o "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's need for inter-networking would be made evident by the problems this caused. "For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. I said,it's obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet." - HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Taylor_%28computer_scientist%29" \o "Robert Taylor (computer scientist)" Robert W.Taylor, co-writer with Licklider of "The Computer as a Communications Device", in an interview with the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times" \o "New York Times" New York Times HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-1#_note-1" \o "" [2] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=3" \o "Edit section: Switched packets" edit] Switched packets Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" \o "Packet switching" Packet switching At the tip of the inter-networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network. During the 1960s,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davies" \o "Donald Davies" Donald Davies ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory" \o "National Physical Laboratory" NPL),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Baran" \o "Paul Baran" Paul Baran ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND" \o "RAND" RAND Corporation), and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" \o "Leonard Kleinrock" Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed and implemented  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" \o "Packet switching" packet switching. The notion that the Internet was developed to survive a nuclear attack has its roots in the early theories developed by RAND. Baran's research had approached packet switching from studies of decentralisation to avoid combat damage compromising the entire network. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-2#_note-2" \o "" [3] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=4" \o "Edit section: Networks that led to the Internet" edit] Networks that led to the Internet [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=5" \o "Edit section: ARPANET" edit] ARPANET Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" \o "ARPANET" ARPANET  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png" \o "Len Kleinrock and the first IMP."  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/68/Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png/300px-Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" \o "Leonard Kleinrock" Len Kleinrock and the first  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" \o "Interface Message Processor" IMP. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-3#_note-3" \o "" [4] Promoted to the head of the information processing office at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" \o "Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency" ARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Roberts" \o "Larry Roberts" Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles" \o "University of California, Los Angeles" University of California, Los Angeles and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Research_Institute" \o "Stanford Research Institute" Stanford Research Institute on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_29" \o "November 29" 29 November  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" \o "1969" 1969. By  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_5" \o "December 5" 5 December  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" \o "1969" 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Utah" \o "University of Utah" University of Utah and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara" \o "University of California, Santa Barbara" University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" \o "ALOHAnet" ALOHAnet, the ARPANET started in 1972 and was growing rapidly, by 1981 the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-4#_note-4" \o "" [5] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-5#_note-5" \o "" [6] ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. ARPANET development was centered around the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments" \o "Request for Comments" Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems.  HYPERLINK "http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1" \o "http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1" RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Crocker" \o "Steve Crocker" Steve Crocker from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles" \o "University of California, Los Angeles" University of California, Los Angeles, and published on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_7" \o "April 7" April 7,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" \o "1969" 1969. These early years were documented in the 1972 film  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Networks:_The_Heralds_of_Resource_Sharing" \o "Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing" Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing. International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were concerned with developing the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" \o "X.25" X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the  HYPERLINK "http://www.norsar.no/NORSAR/history/internet.html" \o "http://www.norsar.no/NORSAR/history/internet.html" Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden" \o "Sweden" Sweden with satellite links to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanum" \o "Tanum" Tanum Earth Station and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London" \o "University College London" University College London. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=6" \o "Edit section: X.25 and public access" edit] X.25 and public access Main articles:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" \o "X.25" X.25,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" \o "Bulletin board system" Bulletin board system, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet" \o "FidoNet" FidoNet Following on from ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were developed by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" \o "International Telecommunication Union" International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SERCnet&action=edit" \o "SERCnet" SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JANET" \o "JANET" JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. This standard was based on the concept of virtual circuits. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Post_Office_%28United_Kingdom%29" \o "General Post Office (United Kingdom)" British Post Office,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Union" \o "Western Union" Western Union International and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tymnet" \o "Tymnet" Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Packet_Switched_Service" \o "International Packet Switched Service" International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" \l "_note-6#_note-6" \o "" [7] Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. X.25 would be used for the first dial-in public access networks, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compuserve" \o "Compuserve" Compuserve and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tymnet" \o "Tymnet" Tymnet. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail" \o "E-mail" electronic mail capabilities and technical support to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" \o "Personal computer" personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" \o "Online chat" real-time chat with its  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CB_Simulator" \o "CB Simulator" CB Simulator. There were also the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America_Online" \o "America Online" America Online (AOL) and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodigy_%28ISP%29" \o "Prodigy (ISP)" Prodigy dial in networks and many  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" \o "Bulletin board system" bulletin board system (BBS) networks such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet" \o "FidoNet" FidoNet. FidoNet in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackers" \o "Hackers" hackers and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_operator" \o "Amateur radio operator" amateur radio operators. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=7" \o "Edit section: UUCP" edit] UUCP Main articles:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UUCP" \o "UUCP" UUCP and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet" \o "Usenet" Usenet In 1979, two students at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University" \o "Duke University" Duke University,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Truscott" \o "Tom Truscott" Tom Truscott and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Ellis" \o "Jim Ellis" Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_shell" \o "Bourne shell" Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" \o "University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill" University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, and ability to use existing leased lines,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" \o "X.25" X.25 links or even  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" \o "ARPANET" ARPANET connections. By 1983 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit§ion=8" \o "Edit section: Merging the networks and creating the Internet" edit] Merging the networks and creating the Internet LANGUAGE OF INTERNET Generally speaking, English is the universal language on the Internet, but it has no official status, and it will never have. The reasons for the position of English are the imperialism and economical and political importance of English-speaking countries. Linguistically, English is extremely unsuitable for international communication, and the actual wide use of English tends to polarize the world into Internet users and Internet illiterates. The position of English can only be altered by major world-scale political and economical changes, such as increasing importance of the European Union or a coalition between Japan and China. Such powers might wish and be able to promote a language other than English, possibly a constructed language, for international communication. Alternatively, or in addition to this, the technology of machine translation may allow people to use their own language in international communication. Table of Contents  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40672#xtocid40672" Preface  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40673#xtocid40673" The current situation  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40674#xtocid40674" Why is it so?  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40675#xtocid40675" Effects of the importance of the Internet and English  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40676#xtocid40676" An official language for the Internet?  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40677#xtocid40677" But can things change?  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40678#xtocid40678" Is English a suitable universal language?  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid40679#xtocid40679" A constructed international language?  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "machtransl#machtransl" An alternative: machine translation  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lingua-franca.html" \l "xtocid406711#xtocid406711" Final remarks Preface The impulse to writing this article was a discussion in the newsgroup  HYPERLINK "news:sci.lang" sci.lang. The original question was "whether or not English should be made the universal language of the internet". As several people remarked, English essentially is the universal language of the Internet. Nevertheless, the question, appropriately interpreted and elaborated, is worth a more delicate treatment. I had previously discussed related themes in my article  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/internet2.html" Internet muuttaa maailman 2 (The Internet changes the world2, in  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/Finnish.html" \o "Information about the Finnish language" Finnish). Here I present some of those ideas in English and develop them a bit further. The current situation In general, the universal language on the Internet is English, or more exactly a vague collection of languages called "English" because their common origin is the national language spoken in England by the English. That national language has spread over the world, and several variants such as American (US) English, Australian English, etc exist. A great number of people whose native language is none of the variants know English as a foreign language. They typically use a more or less simplified variant, e.g. excluding most of the idioms of British, American, Australian etc English. Of course, they make mistakes, and sometimes the "English" used by people as a foreign language on the Internet is almost incomprehensible to anyone else. In addition, people who use English as their native language do not know how to spell difficult words, since they basically know English as a spoken language. Thus, roughly speaking, the universal language of the Internet is clumsy, coarse and misspelled "English". There are exceptions, most importantly national newsgroups in such countries where English is not the native language of the majority. Even in such groups English is used, for instance when people from other countries wish to participate. And a few international groups have a theme like discussing a particular language or culture so that it is natural to assume that the participants have a common language other than English. Moreover, a group which is partly international in the sense of not being purely national might use a language other than English, for instance if the group is intended for people in German-speaking countries. Why is it so? Generally speaking, when a languages has got the position of a universal language, the position tends to be affirmed and extended by itself. Since "everyone" knows and uses English, people are almost forced to learn English and use it, and learn it better. Even if you expect the majority of your readers to understand your native language, you may be tempted to use English when writing e.g. about research work. Usually researchers all over the world know English and use it a lot, and often the relevant terminology is more stable and well-known in English than in your own language. Thus, to maximize the number of interested people that can understand your text, you often select English even if the great majority of your readers have the same native language as you. Alternatively, you might write your texts both in your native language and in English, but this doubles the work needed for writing your document and possibly maintaining it. The maintenance problem is especially important for documents on the World Wide Web - the information system where one crucial feature is the ability to keep things really up to date. Consequently, the use of English in essentially national contexts tends to grow. In the news system, the position of English in most international groups is regarded as so obvious that people who post non-English articles to such groups - by accident or by ignorance - typically get flamed quickly. This is the sort of control that newsgroup communities exercise in other matters than language, too. It is often regarded as an example of the "democratic" nature of the news system. However, things are changing fast. The flame control - i.e. control by flaming - has worked to a great extent because people have had relatively compatible status, background, and values of life. The time has come - childhood's end for the Internet - when we will see more and more people and organizations who pay little attention to flames and netiquette. The increasing amount of spamming is just one indication of this. But these general remarks hardly apply to the status of English. By the way, when people post articles to international groups in their own languages, the reason is typically novice users' ignorance of basic facts about the news system. People start posting articles before they have read what is generally written to the group. One thing that causes this happen relatively often that there is no easily accessible and useable list of groups together with their content descriptions, and typically content descriptions do not explicitely state what language(s) should be used in the group. The universal language position, once gained, tends to be strong. But how is such a position gained? During the history of mankind, there have been several more or less universal languages or lingua francas, such as Latin (and Greek) in the Roman empire, mediaeval Latin in Western Europe, later French and English. Universality is of course relative; it means universality in the "known world" or "civilized world", or just in a large empire. No language has been really universal (global), but the current position of English comes closest. The position of a universal language has always been gained as a by-product of some sort of imperialism: a nation has conquered a large area and more or less assimilated it into its own culture, including language, thus forming an empire. Usually the language of the conquerer has become the language of the state and the upper class first, then possibly spread over the society, sometimes almost wiping out the original languages of the conquered areas. Sometimes - especially in the Middle Ages - the imperialism has had a definite cultural and religious nature which may have been more important than brute military and economic force. As regards to the English language, it would have remained as a national language of the English, had it not happened so that the English first conquered the rest of the British Isles, then many other parts of the world. Later, some English colonies in a relatively small part of America rebelled, formed the United States of America, and expanded a lot. They formed a federal state where a variant of the English language was one of the few really uniting factors. And that federal state became, as we all know, wealthy and important. It also exercised traditional imperialism, but more importantly it gained a very important role in world economy and politics. Whether you call the US influence imperialism or neo-imperialism is a matter of opinion, but it certainly has similar effects on maintaining and expanding the use of English as classical imperialism. This probably sounds like political criticism, but it is intended to be descriptive only. Personally, I do not regard imperialism as an incarnation of the Evil; it has had both positive and negative effects, and in many cases imperialism has been a necessary step from chaos to civilization. Effects of the importance of the Internet and English The importance of the Internet grows rapidly in all fields of human life, including not only research and education but also marketing and trade as well as entertainment and hobbies. This implies that it becomes more and more important to know how to use Internet services and, as a part of this, to read and write English. Of course, the majority of mankind cannot use the Internet nowadays or in the near future, since they live in countries which lack the necessary economical and technological infrastructure. But the Internet causes polarization in developed countries, too: people are divided into Internet users and Internet illiterates, and as the use of the Internet grows and often replaces traditional methods of communication, the illiterates may find themselves in an awkward position. In general, it is easy to learn to use Internet services. The worst problems of Internet illiteracy are, in addition to lack of economical resources of course, wrong attitudes. Older people are usually not accustomed to live in a world of continuous and rapid change, and they may not realize the importance of the Internet or the easiness of learning to use it. But although Internet services themselves are, generally speaking, easy to learn and use, you will find yourself isolated on the Internet if you are not familiar with English. This means that knowledge or lack of knowledge of English is one of the most severe factors that cause polarization. Learning to use a new Internet service or user interface may take a few hours, a few days, or even weeks, but it takes years to learn a language so that you can use it in a fluent and self-confident manner. Of course, when you know some English, you can learn more just by using it on the Internet, but at least currently the general tendency among Internet users is to discourage people in their problems with the English language. Incorrect English causes a few flames much more probably than encouragement and friendly advice. In different countries and cultures, English has different positions. There are countries where English is the native language of the majority, there are countries where English is a widely known second language, and there are countries where English has no special position. These differences add to the above-mentioned polarization. Specifically, it is difficult for people in previous colonies of other countries than Great Britain (e.g. France, Spain, the Netherlands) to adapt to the necessity of learning English. Locally, it may be necessary to learn the language of the previous colonial power since it is often an official language and the common language of educated people; globally, English is necessary for living on the Internet. And the more languages you have to learn well, the less time and energy you will have for learning other things. An official language for the Internet? There is no conceivable way in which any authority could define an official language for the Internet. The Internet as a whole is not controlled by anyone or anything, and this could only change if, by miracle, all countries made an agreement on it or if the entire world were taken to the control of one government. Thus, if the question "whether or not English should be made the universal language of the internet" is interpreted as concerning the official status of English, the answer is simply that English, or any other language, cannot be made the official universal language. It is fruitless to ask whether an impossible thing should be made. But can things change? Things can change, and they actually do, often with unpredictable speed. The rapid fall of the Soviet empire - including the loss of the role of Russian as a "universal" language within in - is a recent indication of this. English can lose its position as a widely used (although not official) universal language in two ways. Either a new empire emerges and its language becomes universal, or a constructed language becomes very popular. I believe most people regard both of these alternatives as extremely improbable, if not impossible. Perhaps they are right, perhaps not. I can see two possible empires to emerge: the European Union and a yet nonexistent Japanese-Chinese empire. The  HYPERLINK "http://europa.eu.int/" European Union (EU) is an existing formation which is, at least according to its own doctrine, moving towards federalism. In many respects, the European Union already is a federal state, with less independence and autonomy for its constituents than the states have in the United States. Although people may present the EU as the successor of previous empires such as the Roman empire and the empire of Charlemagne, it is quite possible that the EU never becomes a real empire, since it seems to be inherently bureaucratic. Every empire needs a bureaucracy, of course, to promote the aims of its ruler(s), but the EU lacks true rulers. But if the EU ever becomes a true empire with prominent role in the world, the language of the empire will hardly be any of the national languages in the EU, except possibly English. It is more probable that the builders of the empire will realize the need for a relatively neutral universal language, and adopt Esperanto or some other constructed language for official purposes. In fact, such a choice would be extremely rational at the present stage of the EU, since now a considerable portion of EU expenses are used for translation and interpretation between the official languages of the EU. A single official language of the EU might or might not be adopted by people worldwide as a universal language for everyday communication, including communication on the Internet. Japan is probably too small, both as a country and as a nation, to create an empire with its own forces, despite its flourishing technology and economy and efficient social organization. But its potential combined with the vast human and other resources of China would certainly constitute a basis for an empire that succesfully competes with the United States and the European Union, even if latter powers were (economically) strongly allied. Both Japan and China would have a lot to gain from intensive mutual cooperation, or alliance, confederation, or federation. A Japanese-Chinese empire would have a difficult choice of language. It might decide to accept the role of English as a universal language, both for continuity and for the reason that selecting either Japanese or Chinese (Mandarin) would set the Japanese-Chinese union at stake. Alternatively, it might seriously consider using a constructed language - most probably not Esperanto but a language which is culturally more neutral, i.e. not dominantly Indo-European, for instance something like  HYPERLINK "http://www.loglan.org" \o "Loglan Homepage" Loglan or  HYPERLINK "http://xiron.pc.helsinki.fi/lojban/" \o "The Lojban WWW Archive" Lojban. Is English a suitable universal language? Apart from being widely used and known, English is extremely unsuitable as a universal language. There are several reasons to this. Any national language, i.e. a language which is or was originally the language of a particular tribe or nation, has obvious defects when used for international communication: Native speakers of the language are in a quite different position than others. Some people regard this as bad in itself, as contrary to the equality principle, but I think it is practical consequences that make it bad. Native speakers tend to use idioms and rare words and to speak too fast, unless they exercise conscious control over their language - and such control is difficult and unnatural when applied to one's mother tongue. This implies that in oral communication in particular native speakers of English often have worse problems in getting themselves correctly understood than nonnative speakers! National languages exist in various dialects and forms - sometimes they are even mutually unintelligible, but the differences always make communication harder. There is usually no standard for a national language, and even if something that can be called standard exists, it is just one form of the language - typically a form that is only used by a minority, and even by it only in a minority of occasions. For a native speaker of a language, it is natural to use one's own dialect, and it is difficult to avoid this entirely; this emphasizes the importance of the above-mentioned problem of native speakers expressing themselves in international contexts. When you learn your native language in your childhood, you learn it by listening to and talking with people who have it as their native language. First they know it much better than you, later equally well. Thus it is very natural human behaviour to use your native language with the unconscious but strong assumption that the listener or reader knows the language to the same or even higher extent than you. In international contexts, this built-in assumption is almost always false, and this has severe consequences. For instance, we tend to regard people as stupid or ignorant if they do not understand normal language; this deep-rooted tendency is present even if our conscious mind understands the situation correctly. A national language carries with it the history of the nation. For instance, words and phrases have got, in addition to their dictionary meanings, connotations, colours and associations. This is an important cultural phenomenon which helps in keeping the nation a nation, but in international communication it is a burden. National languages have originally evolved as spoken languages. When written national languages originated, they were usually formed on the basis of the dialect of the capital or other important area, with the aim of creating a language which supports the creation of a unified nation. Thus, the very origin of a national language is in a sense nationalistic, not internationalistic. Due to their long history, national languages have historical relics and features which make them illogical and irrational, such as grammatical gender or irregular forms. Moreover, being originally spoken languages, they lack sufficient tools for expressing things in an exact, unambiguous manner; and the need for such expression is immense and growing, especially in the areas of law and contracts, technology and technical descriptions, and science. These remarks apply to English, too, and especially to English. One of the worst relics of English is the orthography. English has a very rich repertoire of idioms, and it typically has several words which have the same basic meaning but different connotations and stylistic value. Especially in international contexts you can never know what words mean to people with different backgrounds. Thus, you may occasionally get your basic message understood in some way, but you cannot tell in which way. This is of course an inherent problem in all human communication, but the nature of English makes it a really big problem. English is an eclectic language which tends to borrow words from other languages instead of constructing words for new concepts from older words with derivation or word composition. People often say that English has a rich vocabulary as if it were something to be proud of. The richness of the vocabulary results basically from word borrowing and implies that words for related concepts are typically not related to each other in any obvious, regular manner. Word borrowing makes a language more international in one sense, but in the essential sense it makes it less suitable for international communication, since learning the vocabulary is more difficult. A constructed international language? The discussion above shows that it would be highly desirable to have a  HYPERLINK "http://www.sys.uea.ac.uk/%7ejrk/conlang.html" \o "Some Internet resources relating to constructed languages" constructed language for international communication. It is well known that a large number of attempts to that effect have been made, with little results. Advocates of the basic idea have hardly agreed on anything but the basic idea, and most constructed languages have had no use as a language. People who strongly support the idea have typically designed their own proposal, a perfect language, and they do not want accept anything that is not perfect - "best" is the worst enemy of "good". The very idea is not inherently unrealistic, but it can only be realized if strong economical and political interests are involved, such as the intended creation of a European or Japanese-Chinese empire. The best that the advocates of a constructed international language can wish is that such empires emerge and that the United States remain as an important power, so that the world will have a few strong empires which cannot beat each other but must live in parallel and in cooperation. In such a situation, it might turn out that it is unrealistic not to agree on a common language which is not any of the national languages. The role of the Internet in this hypothetical development would be to create the informational infrastructure for the discussion of the construction of the language, the very construction work, spreading out information about the language, the use of the language, and continuous development of the language. Most probably the language would first be used in parallel with English, and the initial use would be for such purposes like international agreements where national languages are clearly insufficient. For instance, if you need to formulate an agreement between two countries, you definitely need a neutral common language instead of having the text in two languages, each text allowing its own interpretations. An alternative: machine translation An alternative view of the future is that after a few years or decades, no universal language is needed: machine translation will allow you to use your own language. If the machine translation tools had sufficient quality and speed, you could sit on your terminal writing your news article or an IRC message in, say, Finnish, and another person in New Zealand would read your text in English, due to automatic translation "on the fly". During the last few decades, quite a lot of predictions and even promises have been presented regarding machine translation, but useful software and systems for it have not been available until recently. This has caused disappointments and pessimism to the extent that many people consider machine translation as definitely unrealistic. Actually, machine translation is operational for a wide range of texts, although corrective actions by human translators may be necessary. Corrections are needed to resolve ambiguities which exist due to the limitations of the software and to fix errors caused by the fact that translation of human languages requires extralinguistic information. Assumably fully automatic correct translation will never be possible. However, this does not exclude the possibility of using it extensively. It only means that we must be prepared to accept a risk - decreasing by advances in technology, but never reaching zero - of translation errors. Such risks exist when human translators are used, too, and in many respects automatic translation can be more reliable. Both human beings and computer programs err, in different ways. In addition to the advancement of translation techniques, there are several ways in which the risk of errors in automatic translation can be decreased: avoiding ambiguities in the source language: people can try to write their texts so that they are more easily tractable by translation programs checking the translations: a person who has written a text in his native language may run it through a translation program, check and correct the result, and provide the "authorized" translation together with the source text; although it is usually not feasible to do this for several target languages, the authorized translation (typically, to English) can be used by translation programs for checking purposes: if translations from the original source and the authorized translation yield different results, this fact should be signalled to the user warnings: in general, problematic fragments of texts like those obviously allowing different syntactic analyses, can be signalled to the user - i.e. to the author, to the reader, or both. Currently the operational machine translation software is essentially based on syntactic analysis, so that semantic information is implicit in the dictionaries used by the software. An alternative approach, based on some kind of semantic analysis in addition to syntax, does not appear to be practically applicable yet. Final remarks Machine translation and constructed international languages are alternative but not mutually exclusive solutions to the problem of communication between people with different native languages. They can be combined in several ways. A constructed language might form the basis of a semantics-oriented machine translation system. It could be used as an intermediate language, thus reducing the problem of making m*n translators from m languages to n languages into the problem of making m+n translators. A constructed language, specifically designed to allow exact and unambiguous expression, might also be more suitable than English to the role of the language of "authorized" translations. The design of a constructed language which might achieve general use is, of course, a very difficult and controversial issue. A few years ago I wrote an (unpublished) article  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/unilan/lngdes.html" The Effect of Computer Technology on the Design of Artificial Languages which emphasizes computer tractability as an essential point in constructed language design.   HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/iso8601.html" \o "ISO 8601, the date and time representation standard" Date of creation: 1995-10-09. Last update: 1999-08-03. Technical modifications and corrections made 2003-01-12 and 2003-09-02. This page belongs to section  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/lang/index.html" Human languages of the free USING OF BROWNSER  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/tutorial.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Introduction to the Internet Using a Web Browser  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/important.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  There are several different Web Browsers available. However, 90% of the Internet population uses one of the two most popular browsers - Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer. These two browsers are in fierce competition (in what's commonly called the  HYPERLINK "http://www.zdnet.com/yil/content/surfschool/howto/basic/browsewar.html" "browser wars"). However their functionality is very similar - in fact all browsers share many of the same features. Elements of your Browser Hyperlinks: The most basic navigational element in a Web browser is a link. A link is a piece of text that takes you to another Web page (or somewhere else within the current Web page) when you click on it. Links are usually differentiated from the surrounding text by being a different colour and underlined.  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/browser.html" \l "#" This is what a link looks like in your Web browser. Links that you have visited before will usually have a different colour to those that you have not been to yet.  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/browser.html" This is a link you have visited before. You can define the default appearance of links in your browser's "preferences". Some pages will keep this default appearance, but others may define their own link colours. Links may also be in the form of images. There is no clear way to tell whether an image is a link (sometimes there is a blue border around the picture). Most good Web sites will make their picture look like they should be clicked.  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/home.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  This image is also a link to the English On-Line home page. When you move your cursor over a link, the cursor shape will usually change into a hand.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/hand.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET The destination of the link will also turn up in the status bar - the bar at the bottom of the browser.  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/units/home.html" Run your cursor over this link and you will see the cursor change to a hand and the status bar will show the address. Location/Address Box: Another way to get to a Web page is to type its  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/language.html" \l "URL" URL straight into the location box/address box.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/location.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/address.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  To do this you have to know the URL. You can get them from external sources (eg advertisements, articles in magazines, books) - or you can copy and paste them from places on your computer (eg email messages). If you type a link into your Web browser you have to make sure you type it in exactly as it is written. One small mistake (like using the wrong case) and the browser will not be able to find the page that you want. Once you have typed (or pasted) the URL, you need to press the "Enter" key to signal to your browser to load the page. Back Button: The back button is an important navigational tool. It takes you back to the last page you had open. Go Menu: The Go menu is like the back button, but it has a list of all the pages you have visited. You can use this to get back to a page you have previously visited. It saves you having to repeatedly press the back button. In Netscape, use the "Go" menu on the menu bar. In Internet Explorer the menu is on the down arrow next to the Back button.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/go.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/back_menu.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Bookmarks/Favorites: A bookmark is a place holder of a Web page - so you can easily find the page again when you want it. To define a bookmark in Netscape, select "Add Bookmark" from the "Bookmarks" menu. In Internet Explorer bookmarks are called "Favorites" - select "Add to Favorites" from the "Favorites" menu. When you want to go back to a page you have bookmarked, just select the name of the page from the Bookmarks/Favorites menu. After a while you will find that your bookmarks are overflowing, and it will get difficult to find what you want. When this happens you know that it's time to start filing your bookmarks into folders. You can do this by choosing 'Go to bookmarks' from the Bookmarks menu (or "Organize Favorites" from the "Favorites" menu). This will take you into a window where you can add folders, and then file your bookmarks by dragging them to the folder where you want them to live.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/bookmarks.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/favorites.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Images: Images are what make Web pages look attractive, but they are also what makes some Web pages take a long time to load. If you are on a slow connection you might not want to waste your time by downloading lots of images. You can avoid this by turning the images off, so they are no longer loaded automatically. You need to turn off "Auto Load Images" or "Show Pictures" in your browsers' preferences/options. If you do this you will soon find out that you are missing lots of information, and that the pages will look a lot duller. If you decide you do want to see a particular image, you can load it by clicking the right mouse button (right clicking) on the placeholder image, and selecting "Load Image" or "Show Image" from the pop up menu. (On a Mac, click and hold the mouse button) You can save images to your computer (just remember about  HYPERLINK "http://www.benedict.com/" copyright laws!) by right clicking (or clicking and holding on a mac) on the image you want to save and selecting "Save Image As..." or "Save Picture As" from the pop up menu. If you see this  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/broken.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET or this  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/broken_ie.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET on a Web page, it means that the image couldn't be found (usually caused by a mistake by the person who wrote the Web page). Home Button: The Home button (in the button bar at the top of the browser) will take you back to your "home" page. You can define the address of your home page in your browser's preferences (or "Internet Options"). You can make it any page you want - it's most useful if you make it a page that you often use as a starting point -  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/" English Online for instance. Reload: The Reload button will load the whole page again from the Web site. This is useful if: Parts of the page are missing because something happening while it was being loaded; You are looking at a Web page that changes its content often and you want to view the new content. New Browser Window: By selecting "New Web Browser" or "New...Window" from the "File" menu you can open a new browser window. This allows you to keep one page intact while you go off and find another page. For instance you might want to keep a page of search results open in one browser window while you use another window to check out the result pages. If you decide the page is not quite what you want, you can close the browser window and return to the list of search results without having to reload it (a good way of doing that is to 'right-click' or 'click-and-hold' a link and choose "Open Link in New Window" from the popup menu).  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/language.html" \l "download" Downloading Files Sometimes you might want to get a file from the Web and save it on your own computer. For example you might want to open a Word document in MS Word, or download some software so you can run it on your computer.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/icons/howto.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  To download a file: Click the right mouse button (or click and hold the mouse button on a Mac) on the link. Choose the "Save Link As ..." or "Save Target As" option from the pop-up menu. A file window will come up - choose a place on your computer to save the file. Click the OK button to start the downloading process. A "Saving Location" dialogue box will come up which shows you how long the downloading will take.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/illustrations/saving.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  You may find that just clicking the link will download the file for you, or it may automatically run the software that will open the file. You may be presented with a dialogue box that asks if you want to save the file, or open it using the appropriate software. Remember that files you download  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/conceptual/done.html" \l "viruses" may contain viruses, so it's safest to save them to your computer first and check them for viruses before you run them.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/icons/tryit.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Use the  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resource_exchange/" Teacher Resource Exchange to download an appropriate teaching resource. Zip Files: You may often be confronted with the choice of downloading zip (or zipped) files from the Web. These are files that have been compressed to make the file size smaller to make them quicker to download. Sometimes it's a single file that has been zipped, other times several files have been zipped into a single file. After you have downloaded the file, you need to unzip it using special software. If you have such software installed on your computer, you will probably find that just double clicking the file will run the software. You usually have to choose a destination folder which is where the file (or files) will be put once they have been 'expanded' out into their full size.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/icons/surf.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://www.winzip.com" Winzip is shareware software that will allow you to unzip files - and to zip up your own files too. Forms A form is a part of a Web page into which you can enter information by typing in a text box, choosing an option from a menu or clicking on a checkbox. Here are the common form elements: Top of Form This is a text box (practise by typing some text in it).  HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Text.1  This is a menu (practise by choosing one of the options).  HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Select.1  This is checkbox (practise by checking and unchecking the box).  HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Checkbox.1 I agree The information you enter into the form doesn't go anywhere until you submit the form. To submit the form you need to press a button which will be located at the bottom of the form, and will usually look something like this: (practise by pressing the button - it won't do anything though!). You only need to press the "Submit" button once. It might take a while for your browser to do anything (it needs to 'think' a bit first!), but don't keep pushing the button - your form will get submitted multiple times if you do. Once you press the "Submit" button your form will usually be processed by a program running on a  HYPERLINK "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/introduction/language.html" \l "server" Web server. This program will take the contents of the form and do something with them (for example email them to the relevant person).  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/tutorial/line.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Bottom of Form FINDING THINGS ON THE WEB  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://windsorlibrary.org/images/wplwid2.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  W i n d s o rP u b l i cL i b r a r y H o w t oF i n dT h i n g so nt h eW e b  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://windsorlibrary.org/images/owlbar.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  How Do I Find Things on the Web? Good question. The Short Answer: Click Here:  HYPERLINK "http://www.google.com" Google. The First Way: Search Engines Google is a search engine. A search engine is a service that scours the Web, reading as many pages as it can, and indexing those pages in ways that make it quick and easy to find them again. Google is, in many people's opinion, the best general-purpose search engine on the Web. It boasts over a billion (that's right, a billion!) indexed pages. More importantly, it knows how to index those page so that, more often than not, the ones you are looking for show up very high on the hit list of sites matching your search criteria. How it works. Simple. Just type the words you are looking for into the Google search box and press the [Enter] key. Google searches for pages on the Web that contain all your words, and displays a list of links to those pages, organized in a way that Google thinks presents the most relevant, or best, hit first; the second best, second; and so on. Google will also tell you how many pages it found that contained your search words. There is a Search Tips link at the Google site that will teach you a whole lot of tricks to make your use of Google even more effective. I do research for a living, however, and I rarely find it necessary to employ these tricks. One tip that is useful, however, is the one about quotation marks. Let's say you want to look up Web sites that deal with Act 60, the Vermont school funding law. If you type Act 60 into the Google search box without the quotation marks, Google returns over a million hits. If you type it in with the quotation marks, Google will only find those pages that contain the word Act followed immediately by the number 60. When I did this, Google returned only 3,436 pages--much easier to deal with than one million plus! Interestingly, the first item in both lists was the same, and was very pertinent: Act 60--What Vermonters Should Know. There are many search engines on the Web. I'll only mention two more. In the rare instances when Google disappoints, I go back to my old favorite,  HYPERLINK "http://www.altavista.com/" AltaVista. AltaVista has suffered recently from what I call Web Bloat. It used to be happy being the Web's best search engine--fast, huge, and powerful--but then it became overly ambitious, started selling a lot of banner ads, added a directory to its site (see Internet Directories, below), put news headlines on its site, and attempted to become a Web portal, the page users would always want to start at when surfing the Web. Consequently, AltaVista has slowed down considerably (an unforgivable sin in my book), and has neglected the task of improving and building its index. Still, it often does manage to find what I want when Google doesn't, and it still does offer more options to the professional searcher than most other search engines. Last comes  HYPERLINK "http://www.dogpile.com/" Dogpile. Dogpile is a metasearch engine. That is, it calls upon other search engines, including Google and AltaVista, to do its work for it. Dogpile is useful when you want to gather hits from lots of different sources. The last time I used Dogpile, it searched for my terms in 13 different engines. Dogpile also suffers from Web Bloat. Everyone wants to be a portal--that first Web page users always see when they fire up their browser. But why a user would choose one of these slow, advertising-clogged, overcrowded, and ugly sites rather than something lean, clean, and lovely like, for instance, the  HYPERLINK "http://www.together.net/~windsorl/index.htm" Windsor Public Library Home Page for their portal is a mystery to me. The Second Way: Internet Directories Another way to find information on the Web is by looking in a Directory or Index of Web sites. Internet Directories are organized rather like the familiar Yellow Pages. I never use them, so I am not absolutely sure why anyone would. The granddaddy of Internet directories is, of course,  HYPERLINK "http://www.yahoo.com/" Yahoo. You can find an online version of Moby Dick by going to Yahoo and clicking on Arts & Humanities, then click on Humanities, then Literature, then Electronic Literature, then Collections, then Bartleby.com and when Bartleby.com comes up, you can search for Moby Dick. Me, I go to Google and type in "Call me Ishmael," and in a click or two I'm reading Chapter 1. (I just re-read it, by the way. It's great!) However, there has been a tremendous amount of time, effort, and money expended on the development of these directories (and they are legion) on the Web. So they must be used by somebody. In fact, most of us so believe in the usefulness of Web directories, even when we don't use them ourselves, that more often than not we find outselves producing our very own, like the  HYPERLINK "http://windsorlibrary.org/cybrary/cybrary.htm" Cybrary here on the Windsor Public Library site, or the bookmarks you maintain in your very own browser. The Third Way: Bookmarks Bookmarks (in Netscapespeak) or Favorites (in Microsofttalk) are like personal Web directories. They are collections of sites you have visited and have found of such value that you have memorialized their names and Web addresses for future reference. Netscape and Internet Explorer both contain tools that allow you to annotate and to organize these sites into related folders. Of course, bookmarks only contains links to sites you have already visited and found useful enough to keep a record of, so you will still need search engines and, possibly, Web directories to find new pages. However, I would bet that most regular Web surfers tend to return to many of the same pages they have visited before, so bookmarks are a wonderful tool for saving those unmemorable addresses and getting back to them quickly. Your time devoted to understanding and organizing your bookmarks will be time well spent.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://windsorlibrary.org/cybrary/images/owlbar.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  I hope you have found this short guide through the Big Bad Web to be of some use. If it has raised additional questions in your mind, feel free to  HYPERLINK "mailto:dcopps@together.net" write me with them. Dale Copps for the Windsor Public Library, Windsor, Vermont HYPERLINK "http://windsorlibrary.org/index.htm" Home Copyright 2001 Windsor Public Library HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA What is Hypertext or Hypermedia? The name hypertext, or hypermedia, has been applied to networks of nodes (also called articles, documents, files, cards, pages, frames, screens) containing information (in text, graphics, video, sound, and so on) that are connected by links (also called pointers, cross-references, citations). Hypertext is more commonly applied to text-only applications whereas hypermedia is used to convey the inclusion of other media, especially sound and video ([ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "3#3" 3], p. 553). The intrigue of hypertext is that it extends traditional linear text with the opportunity for jumping to multiple related articles. Convenient backtracking, clickable indexes and tables of contents, string searching, bookmarks, and other navigation tools profoundly alter the reader's experience....hypertext authors need to choose appropriate projects, to organize their articles suitably, and to adjust their writing style to make the best use of this new medium ([ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "3#3" 3], p. 556). The largest hypermedia experiment of all time is happening right in front of our eyes. Since the advent of the World Wide Web, many people have been able to experience the relatedness of the internet, with its accompanying problems of disorientation. Research on Learning with Hypermedia In a review of hypermedia-based learning, Ayersman [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "1#1" 1] discussed four strands of research into learning and hypermedia: research based on perceptions or attitudes about hypermedia; research based on individual differences or learning styles; research based on system analyses (which examined the most effective ways to structure hypermedia); and, research based on performance which ranged from use of pre-made software to the construction of one's own software. His conclusions: positive attitude for hypermedia multimode hypermedia can address different learning styles more effectively than single-mode teaching hypermedia is at least as effective as lecture and especially effective with remedial and learning-disabled students having students construct their own hypermedia had benefits which go much further than the acquisition of content; one study reported increases in many higher level cognitive processes such as "finding and interpreting information, articulating and communicating knowledge, and using computers as cognitive tools" (p. 516). As a counterbalance to this optimistic review of the potential of hypermedia for learning, McKnight, Dillon & Richardson [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "2#2" 2] provide a different viewpoint. After reviewing various studies on learning and hypermedia, they conclude: few significant differences between results for linear instruction and hypermedia need to focus less on the process of learning and more on the outcomes (student achievement) an evolutionary approach to design based on user-centered task-based design should be taken. Guidelines for Hypertext Creation Shneiderman [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "3#3" 3] provides the following guidelines for creating hypertexts: Know the user and their tasks. Ensure that meaningful structure comes first. Apply diverse skills (by including information specialists, content specialists and technologists on the project team). Respect chunking. Organize information into chunks that deal with one topic, theme or idea. Show interrelationships (by using links to related articles). Ensure simplicity in traversal. Design the link structure so that navigation is simple and consistent throughout the system Design each screen carefully. Reduce cognitive load by minimizing the burden on the user's short term memory. You can do this by providing on-screen prompts such as icons or menus rather than requiring the user to memorize terms or codes. The goal is to enable users to concentrate on the contents while the computer vanishes (p. 558-559). Some new research into issues surrounding hypermedia can be found at the  HYPERLINK "http://ise.ee.uts.edu.au/hypdev/" Hypermedia Development Workshop Series  [1] Ayersman, D. (1996). Reviewing the research on hypermedia-based learning. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 28 (4). 500-525 [2] McKnight, C., Dillon, A., & Richardson, J. (1966). User-centered design of hypertext/hypermedia for education. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology . New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan. [3] Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing the user interface: Strategies for effective human-computer interaction (3rd ed.) . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing. Site Design:[Hypermedia Basics] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/metaphor/metaphor.htm" Metaphor] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/function.htm" Web Site Categorization] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/navigation.htm" Navigation] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/usability.htm" Site Design Testing] Main Level: [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/index.htm" Home Page] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/theory/theory.htm" Design Theory][ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/site.htm" Site Design] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/page/page.htm" Page Design] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/media/media.htm" MultiMedia] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/tresource/tresource.htm" Teacher Resources] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/textindex.htm" Table of Contents]  What is Hypertext or Hypermedia? The name hypertext, or hypermedia, has been applied to networks of nodes (also called articles, documents, files, cards, pages, frames, screens) containing information (in text, graphics, video, sound, and so on) that are connected by links (also called pointers, cross-references, citations). Hypertext is more commonly applied to text-only applications whereas hypermedia is used to convey the inclusion of other media, especially sound and video ([ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "3#3" 3], p. 553). The intrigue of hypertext is that it extends traditional linear text with the opportunity for jumping to multiple related articles. Convenient backtracking, clickable indexes and tables of contents, string searching, bookmarks, and other navigation tools profoundly alter the reader's experience....hypertext authors need to choose appropriate projects, to organize their articles suitably, and to adjust their writing style to make the best use of this new medium ([ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "3#3" 3], p. 556). The largest hypermedia experiment of all time is happening right in front of our eyes. Since the advent of the World Wide Web, many people have been able to experience the relatedness of the internet, with its accompanying problems of disorientation. Research on Learning with Hypermedia In a review of hypermedia-based learning, Ayersman [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "1#1" 1] discussed four strands of research into learning and hypermedia: research based on perceptions or attitudes about hypermedia; research based on individual differences or learning styles; research based on system analyses (which examined the most effective ways to structure hypermedia); and, research based on performance which ranged from use of pre-made software to the construction of one's own software. His conclusions: positive attitude for hypermedia multimode hypermedia can address different learning styles more effectively than single-mode teaching hypermedia is at least as effective as lecture and especially effective with remedial and learning-disabled students having students construct their own hypermedia had benefits which go much further than the acquisition of content; one study reported increases in many higher level cognitive processes such as "finding and interpreting information, articulating and communicating knowledge, and using computers as cognitive tools" (p. 516). As a counterbalance to this optimistic review of the potential of hypermedia for learning, McKnight, Dillon & Richardson [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "2#2" 2] provide a different viewpoint. After reviewing various studies on learning and hypermedia, they conclude: few significant differences between results for linear instruction and hypermedia need to focus less on the process of learning and more on the outcomes (student achievement) an evolutionary approach to design based on user-centered task-based design should be taken. Guidelines for Hypertext Creation Shneiderman [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/hypertxt.htm" \l "3#3" 3] provides the following guidelines for creating hypertexts: Know the user and their tasks. Ensure that meaningful structure comes first. Apply diverse skills (by including information specialists, content specialists and technologists on the project team). Respect chunking. Organize information into chunks that deal with one topic, theme or idea. Show interrelationships (by using links to related articles). Ensure simplicity in traversal. Design the link structure so that navigation is simple and consistent throughout the system Design each screen carefully. Reduce cognitive load by minimizing the burden on the user's short term memory. You can do this by providing on-screen prompts such as icons or menus rather than requiring the user to memorize terms or codes. The goal is to enable users to concentrate on the contents while the computer vanishes (p. 558-559). Some new research into issues surrounding hypermedia can be found at the  HYPERLINK "http://ise.ee.uts.edu.au/hypdev/" Hypermedia Development Workshop Series  [1] Ayersman, D. (1996). Reviewing the research on hypermedia-based learning. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 28 (4). 500-525 [2] McKnight, C., Dillon, A., & Richardson, J. (1966). User-centered design of hypertext/hypermedia for education. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology . New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan. [3] Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing the user interface: Strategies for effective human-computer interaction (3rd ed.) . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing. Site Design:[Hypermedia Basics] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/metaphor/metaphor.htm" Metaphor] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/function.htm" Web Site Categorization] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/navigation.htm" Navigation] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/usability.htm" Site Design Testing] Main Level: [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/index.htm" Home Page] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/theory/theory.htm" Design Theory][ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/site/site.htm" Site Design] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/page/page.htm" Page Design] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/media/media.htm" MultiMedia] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/tresource/tresource.htm" Teacher Resources] [ HYPERLINK "http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/textindex.htm" Table of Contents] HOW ARE THE INTERNET WORKS  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/pda/pda_topleft.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/pda/pda_anim.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/pda/pda_topright.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/pda/transparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/titles/newnav.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/titles/main.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  How the Internet Works  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/Images/19990819-nerdscentre.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  The Internet is a fantastically simple-looking system. You type in a web address or click on a highlighted word and, presto! You are magically transported to a new place. But like a sleek sports car, there's a lot of complex engineering behind the World Wide Web. This page will help give you a bit of an understanding of what's going on when you type in a web address. The Metaphor: Sending a book Let's imagine you are a writer and you want to get your latest 3,000 page manuscript from your desk in a Calgary office tower to your publisher in Montreal. Step 1: Look up the address The first thing you do, of course, is look up the address of your publisher. Step 2: Put the book into envelopes Now, most people would send the book in one single box. But it would be a lot safer if you sent it out with each chapter going in its own envelope. That way, if any parts get lost or delayed along the way, your publisher can still go over individual chapters while you resend the missing pages. Step 3: Number and address your envelopes To make sure your publisher knows which chapters go in what order, you should be careful to number each one. And, of course, you should write down the address of your publisher in the centre of the envelope and your return address in the top-left-hand corner (so that your publisher knows where she should write back to.) Step 4: Put your envelopes in outgoing mail Finally, you'll want to drop your manuscript in your office buildings external-mail bin (because you don't want your priceless work getting mixed up with all your offices internal mail and memos) with explicit instructions that the envelopes get to Montreal as fast as possible. Step 5: Send each envelope along the fastest possible route Now the workers in the mailroom will try to decide where Montreal is and how to get it there the fastest, and they will start sending them out. Some envelopes may go through Canada Post in Toronto. Some may go through FedEx (passing through its hub in Memphis, Tennessee on the way). Still others may go UPS (through its centre in Louisville, Kentucky). There's no saying exactly who the mailroom employees will choose or what path your envelopes will take except that the mailroom workers (and everyone else along the way) will try to send them along the fastest possible route at that exact moment. Even though it's not the most direct way, it's possible that some of your packages might pass through Timbuktu, if that turns out to be the fastest way from Calgary to Montreal. Step 6: Sort the envelopes and assemble the book Finally, your packages will arrive in Montreal in the mailroom of your publisher and be delivered to her desk. There she will probably sort them and start opening them. If anything went wrong along the way, she'll probably end up sending you requests for any missing or damaged envelopes. But ultimately shell likely send off a note telling you she got your book. In real life This is actually pretty similar to what happens on the Internet. This process is known by the unwieldy title Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol or TCP/IP for short. And it happens just about every time you communicate over the Internet, whether you are sending a 3,000-page manuscript or blasting off a short email or clicking on a web pages hyperlink. Step 1: Look up the address The first thing your computer does is look up the exact address of the information's destination called an IP address (IP stands for Internet Protocol). To you and me, Internet addresses look pretty simple: exn.ca, for instance. Unfortunately, this sort of address doesn't do any good for your computer. That's because it doesn't include any real information about where exn.ca is. At the time that I write this, our real address (our IP address) is in fact 206.221.254.130. Want proof? Right now, your address bar probably reads  HYPERLINK "http://exn.ca/Nerds/internet.cfm" \t "_self" http://exn.ca/Nerds/internet.cfm or  HYPERLINK "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/internet.cfm" \t "_self" http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/internet.cfm. But if you replace this with  HYPERLINK "http://206.221.254.130/Nerds/internet.cfm" \l "bookmark" \t "_self" http://206.221.254.130/Nerds/internet.cfm you should arrive back at this same page. So an IP address is kind of like a complicated-looking street address not unlike the street addresses in Edmonton. Take 10145 109 Street, for example (my old apartment in Edmonton). Kind of intimidating. But, of course, all my friends knew it simply as "Andrew's place". To get this IP address, your computer sends a request to a Domain Name Server (or DNS). Its basically a computer program whose sole job is to convert common every-day Internet domain names into their numeric IP equivalent. Armed with this IP address, your computer now knows where to send the data. Step 2 & 3: Slice the file into packets and address each one Next, it hacks your data into small pieces between 1,500 and 2,000 characters long, slaps on the destination's IP address, your computer's IP address (so the other computer knows who to write back to), and a number indicating which order these data fragments were created. All together, each one of these pieces is called a packet. The file is now ready to be sent. Step 4: Send the packets to the gateway Next, your computer starts sending off the packets to a gateway server. This is a computer (also known as a router) that acts as the doorway connecting your Internet Service Provider's computer network with the rest of the Internet, and decides what packets belong inside the network and which ones can venture out into the Net. It also acts like a travel agent, deciding which computer should be sent the packets next. Step 5: Send each packet along the fastest possible route From now on, the packets bounce from computer to computer, leaping into increasingly bigger and faster communications streams. And with each leap, the packets get closer to their final destination. If at any point the network connections ahead are ever slow, the packets are sent off along a different route to avoid the slowdown. Step 6: Sort the packets and reassemble the file The packets eventually stream in through the gateway router of the destination computers network and are sorted and reassembled into their original form. Packets that never make it are requested again and the final file is deposited in the destination computer in the same form in which it left. Finally, a message is sent back to your computer, using the same process, telling it that the transmission was a success. What is particularly impressive is that this whole process usually takes a fraction of a second to happen. And it happens over and over and over again, every time you click on a link, submit a form or request a file. Think about that next time you drop an envelope in a mailbox! It sounds almost comically elaborate, but it works and works very, very well. In fact you used it several times just to see this page! Story by:  HYPERLINK "mailto:sysop@exn.ca" Andrew Adamson  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/pda/transparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.exn.ca/Nerds/images/pda/pda_bottom.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  REASON WHY PEOPLE USE INTERNET Abstract Participants in the HomeNet study reported using the Internet more for pleasure than for instrumental purposes. The most popular reasons they cited for using the Internet were to get information relevant to a hobby or a personal interest, to communicate with family and friends, and to "enjoy myself." Background HomeNet is a field trial at Carnegie Mellon University whose aim is to understand people's use of the Internet at home. The philosophy underlying the project was to reduce economic and technological barriers for participants so that we might learn for the first time how a diverse sample of families would use the Internet. Starting in 1995, we provided 50 families with hardware and connections and began carefully documenting how they used on-line services such as electronic mail, computerized bulletin boards, chat groups, and the World Wide Web. As of March 1997, 100 families are part of the trial. Through our detailed monitoring of families' Internet use, periodic surveys, and interviews with family members, we are able to measure the demand for and impact of electronic communication and telecommunication services over time. Our earliest findings demonstrated large contrasts in the amount that different demographic groups used the Internet at home. Teenagers are much heavier users than their parents; and among teenagers, boys are heavier users than girls. However, among adults, women are somewhat heavier users than men, especially in their use of electronic mail. In this report note, we examine the reasons for which different groups reported using the Internet. Our goal is to identify whether some purposes for using the Internet are more popular than others and whether the relative popularity of purposes (i.e., their rankings) differs by demographic group.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://homenet.hcii.cs.cmu.edu/progress/purpose.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Figure 1: Frequency of using the Internet for different purposes Purpose of Use Figure 1 contains a bar chart showing the extent to which HomeNet participants reported using the Internet for different purposes during the middle six months of 1996. The length of a bar represents the average use for a particular purpose in reference to a response scale where "0" meant no use, "1" meant occasional use, and "2" meant frequent use. (Standard errors of the means are indicated by whiskers.) For conceptual clarity, the purposes are grouped into four broad categories-entertainment, interpersonal communication, work, and electronic commerce. Participants used the Internet more for hedonic purposes than for instrumental ones. Overall, HomeNet participants reported they were far more likely to use the Internet for enjoying themselves, for getting information relevant to a hobby or personal interest, and for communicating with friends and family (both in the Pittsburgh area and beyond) than for other purposes. For example, as shown in the far right column of the figure, 35% of the sample reported that they "frequently" used the internet to get hobby-related information, and 35% reported frequently using it to keep in touch with friends and family outside of the Pittsburgh area. The percentage of frequent users is less for other purposes such as doing school work (29%), doing job-related work (23%), or getting product information (17%). Participants seldom reported frequent Internet use for joining groups (4%), for actually buying something (3%), for making money (2%), or for viewing sexually-oriented materials (2%). Age and Gender Differences As one might suspect, these activities do not have the same appeal to teenagers and adults alike or to males and females alike. Females reported that they used the Internet for communication more than males did, including communicating with friends and family both inside and outside the Pittsburgh area, and for getting personal help. Compared to males, females also reported using the Internet more for schoolwork. Males were more likely to report using the Internet for nonsocial activities-for getting product information, for downloading software, or for viewing sexually-oriented materials. The most prominent contrasts by age were not surprising. Adults were more likely to use the Internet as part of their jobs and to get employment-related information while teenagers were more likely to use the Internet for schoolwork and for getting educationally-oriented information. But it is perhaps less obvious that adults rather than teenagers were more likely to use the Internet to get product information, to purchase items, to read the news, and to view sexually-oriented materials. Compared to other groups, adult males were especially likely to use the Internet for reading the news. In contrast, teenagers were more likely to use the Internet to play games, to listen to music, and to meet new people. Compared to other groups, both adult women and teenage boys were especially likely to report using the Internet for advertising, for selling, and for making money. Conclusions In summary, to the extent that we can generalize from our sample of 100 households in the Pittsburgh area, we can assume that people's foremost use for the Internet in 1996 was for pleasure. They used the Internet for entertainment-to enjoy themselves and to obtain more information about their personal interests. They also used it to sustain personal relationships. The most popular use for the Internet outside of the entertainment category was for corresponding by electronic mail, and the bulk of these relationships presumably existed in advance of the Internet's addition to the household. Finally, a substantial minority of people also used the Internet for work purposes--either for paid employment in the case of adults or for schoolwork in the case of teenagers. Compared to these few highly-cited reasons for using the Internet, others such as meeting new people, joining a group, or participating in a Mud or chat session were listed relatively rarely. The general category of electronic commerce received the least mention. While it looks like many people are occasionally using the Internet to find information about products, they are apparently executing their purchases through other channels. Whether, the activities which appear exotic now will grow in importance in the future remains to be seen. EVALUATING WEB RESOURCES Resources The Web offers a wealth of information, but not all of it is equally accurate or reliable. Unfortunately there is no easy checklist to consult to see if a Web page is credible. As with all information resources, the usefulness of the information may depend on what was needed in the first place. If you're using a Web-based source for an academic research paper, you'll need to evaluate and cite the source carefully. Concepts and questions to consider: Authority Is the author of the page clearly identified? What are his or her credentials for writing on this topic? Is the author affiliated with an organization? What is the reputation of that organization? Is there a link back to the organization's page or some other way to contact the organization and/or verify its credibility? (address, phone number, e-mail address?) Who publishes and/or is responsible for the website itself? Who has registered the URL?  HYPERLINK "http://www.novemberlearning.com/Default.aspx?tabid=159&type=art&site=184&parentid=56" more info Think about these questions as you look at the following sites:  HYPERLINK "http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/3/3.html" Sociological Research Online |  HYPERLINK "http://www.smokingsection.com/issues2.html" Social costs of smoking |  HYPERLINK "http://pubweb.northwestern.edu/~abutz/di/intro.html" Holocaust revision Purpose & Coverage Are the purpose and objectives of the page clear? Is it geared to a particular audience or level of expertise? Is the primary purpose to provide information? to sell a product? to make a political point? to have fun? to parody a person or organization or idea? Is it a comprehensive resource or does it focus on a narrow range of information? Is it clear about this focus? If it's an information database, are the dates of coverage clear and appropriate to your needs? Is it easy to search? Does it present information in a usable format? If the page is interactive (a database or simulation, for instance), does it effectively present the information in a usable format? Think about these questions as you look at the following sites:  HYPERLINK "http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/71005011/ABSTRACT" Addictive Behaviors |  HYPERLINK "http://www.melatonin.com/melatonin-faq.php" Melatonin |  HYPERLINK "http://www.dhmo.org/" Dihydrogen Monoxide Research Division Accuracy Is the page part of an edited or peer-reviewed publication? Does the content of the page convey the amount, depth, and significance of the evidence being presented? Are the arguments persuasive? Can factual information be verified through footnotes or bibliographies to other credible sources? Has the site been evaluated by one of the Web subject indexes, a rating service or a library? If so, can you tell what criteria they used? Did you find this source using an internet search engines such as Google or Yahoo? They neither select the best pages nor filter out questionable ones, so you need to evaluate the choices carefully. They also may not always have the most recent version of the page. Based on what you already know about the subject (or have checked from other sources), does this information seem credible? Are there obvious typos or misspelled words or other signs of sloppiness? Think about these questions as you look at the following sites:  HYPERLINK "http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/101/6/e2" Pediatrics |  HYPERLINK "http://www.malepregnancy.com/" Male Pregnancy |  HYPERLINK "http://www.theonion.com/content/node/40076" Google Announces Plan To Destroy All Information It Can't Index Timeliness Is it clear when the information was published? When was it last updated? Is this the most recent version? Are there any indications that an attempt is made to keep the pages current? If there are links to other Web pages, are they current? Think about these questions as you look at the following sites:  HYPERLINK "http://www.cnn.com/2001/LAW/09/10/child.exploitation/index.html" CNN |  HYPERLINK "http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/hatecm.htm" Hatecrime Stats Integrity of the Data Is the source of any factual information clearly stated? Are the source, scope and date of any statistics clearly labeled? Is it clear whether or not the information as been excerpted from a larger piece? Is there a way to tell if this is the most recent version of a particular piece? Does the page rely on photographic images to make a point? If so, be aware that digital images can be easily manipulated. Think about these questions as you look at the following sites:  HYPERLINK "http://www.abanet.org/domviol/statistics.html" Domestic Violence Stats | HYPERLINK "http://library.sonoma.edu/images/Schulzilla.jpg"  Godzilla at SSU |  HYPERLINK "http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl_image_quiz.htm" Image Quiz: Real or Fake?  Objectivity or Point of View Does the page display a particular bias or perspective? Is it clear and forthcoming about its view of the subject? Does it use inflammatory or provocative language? If the page contains advertising, are the ads clearly distinguishable from the content? Is any conflict of interest discernable between content and advertising? Think about these questions as you look at the following sites:  HYPERLINK "http://www.thenation.com/" The Nation |  HYPERLINK "http://www.nationalreview.com/" National Review  HYPERLINK "http://library.sonoma.edu/research/subject/evalassigment.html" An assignment for evaluating a Web page VIRUSES  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/resources/educate.aspx" \o "For Teachers and Educators"   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/library/headers/header_meetmicrobes.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/virus_bacterium.aspx"  Virus or Bacterium?  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/types.aspx"  Types of Microbes  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/archaea/" Archaea  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/bacteria/" Bacteria  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/fungi/" Fungi  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/protista/" Protista  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/virus/" Viruses  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/virus/look.aspx" What They Look Like  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/virus/where.aspx" Where They're Found  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/mergers/" Microbial Mergers  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/live.aspx"  Where They Live  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/timeline1.aspx"  Discovery Timeline  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/tools.aspx"  Tools & Techniques  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/look/radio.aspx" \o "Microbeworld Radio"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/drill_podcast.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "" \o "increase font-size"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/common/icon_textup.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK "" \o "decrease font-size"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/common/icon_textdown.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK "http://del.icio.us/post"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/common/icon_delicious.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK "JavaScript:window.print();"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/common/icon_print.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Viruses and Some Virus-like Agents When is a life form not a life form? When it's a virus. Viruses are strange things that straddle the fence between living and non-living. On the one hand, if they're floating around in the air or sitting on a doorknob, they're inert. They're about as alive as a rock. But if they come into contact with a suitable plant, animal or bacterial cell, they spring into action. They infect and take over the cell like pirates hijacking a ship. What They Are A virus is basically a tiny bundle of genetic materialeither DNA or RNAcarried in a shell called the viral coat, or capsid, which is made up of bits of protein called capsomeres. Some viruses have an additional layer around this coat called an envelope. That's basically all there is to viruses.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/meetmicros/viruses/polio_mgal.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/meetmicros/viruses/t4_mgal.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/meetmicros/viruses/adeno.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  The  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/resources/gallery_11_polio.htm" polio virus, left, once crippled millions. Courtesy of the MicrobeLibrary.org; Jean-Yves Sgro, University of Wisconsin. The  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/resources/gallery_07_t4.htm" T4 bacteriophage, middle, is a virus that invades bacterial cells. Courtesy of the MicrobeLibrary.org; Dennis Kunkel. Gold clusters bound to the knob protein of Adenovirus, right. Courtesy of Brookhaven National Laboratory.VIRUSES OF NOTE Adenoviruses are used in experimental gene therapy treatments to deliver therapeutic genes. Bacteriophages are being explored as tools to treat bacterial infections by targeting and destroying infectious bacteria. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is responsible for the AIDS pandemic. Human papillomavirus causes cervical cancer. Influenza causes the flu, which killed some 21 million people worldwide in 1918. Lambda phage is useful in cloning DNA. Potyviruses cause disease in a wide variety of important agricultural plants. Tulip mosaic virus causes streaks in tulip petal coloration, resulting in flowers sold at premium prices. Variola major causes smallpox. Although eradicated worldwide in the late 1970s, remaining stores could be used to create deadly bioweapons. Microbes are single-celled organisms that can perform the basic functions of life metabolism, reproduction, and adaptation. Except viruses. Viruses cant metabolize nutrients, produce and excrete wastes, move around on their own, or even reproduce unless they are inside another organisms cells. They arent even cells. Yet viruses have played key roles in shaping the history of life on our planet by shuffling and redistributing genes in and among organisms and by causing diseases in animals and plants. Viruses have been the culprits in many human diseases, including smallpox, flu, AIDS, certain types of cancer, and the ever-present common cold. Contact When viruses come into contact with host cells, they trigger the cells to engulf them, or fuse themselves to the cell membrane so they can release their DNA into the cell. Once inside a host cell, viruses take over its machinery to reproduce. Viruses override the host cells normal functioning with their own set of instructions that shut down production of host proteins and direct the cell to produce viral proteins to make new virus particles. Some viruses insert their genetic material into the host cells DNA, where they begin directing the copying of their genes or simply lie dormant for years or a lifetime. Either way, the host cell does all the actual work: the viruses simply provide the instructions. Viruses may be able to infect and reproduce in more than one kind of animal, but the same virus can cause different reactions in different hosts. For example, flu viruses infect birds, pigs, and humans. While some types of flu viruses dont harm birds, they can overwhelm and kill humans. Plant viruses do not infect animals or vice versa. Viruses that infect bacteria do nothing to animal or plant cells. DNA Disrupter Viruses can act as miniature couriers. When they infect, they may inadvertently take up a bit of their hosts DNA and have it copied into their progeny. When the offspring viruses move on to infect new cells, they may insert this bit of accidentally pilfered DNA into the new hosts genome. This process is called transduction. This can sometimes create a happy outcome. For example, the soil-dwelling bacterium Bacillus subtilis has viral genes that help protect it from heavy metals and other harmful substances in the soil. Other times, viruses can wreak havoc when they bring in new genes. For example, Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes cholera, is harmless in itself. The disease-causing toxin that causes illness is actually made by a virus that at some point smuggled itself into its hosts genome. Viruses can also influence host genes by where they insert themselves into their hosts DNA. Recent decoding of the human genome shows that viral DNA sequences have been reproducing jointly with our genes for ages. Some of these DNA sequences stay put, but others seem to move about our genome, jumping from place to place on a chromosome or from chromosome to chromosome. These mobile elements take up nearly half of the human genome. Hemophilia and muscular dystrophy are two human diseases that researchers now believe resulted from mobile elements that, while skipping about the genome, ungraciously barged right into the middle of key human genes. Single-Minded Mission Viruses exist for one purpose only: to reproduce. To do that, they have to take over the reproductive machinery of suitable host cells. Upon landing on an appropriate host cell, a virus gets its genetic material inside the cell either by tricking the host cell to pull it inside, like it would a nutrient molecule, or by fusing its viral coat with the host cell wall or membrane and releasing its genes inside. Some viruses inject their genes into the host cell, leaving their empty viral coats sitting outside. If a virus is a DNA virus, its genetic material then inserts itself into the host cell's DNA. If the virus is an RNA virus, it must first turn its RNA into DNA using the host cell's machinery before inserting into the host DNA. The viral genes are then copied many, many times, using the machinery the host cell would normally use to reproduce its own DNA. The virus uses the host cell's enzymes to build new viral capsids and other viral proteins. The new viral genes and proteins then come together and assemble into whole new viruses. The new viruses are either released from the host cell without destroying the cell or eventually build up to a large enough number that they burst the host cell like an overfilled water balloon. Other Virus-Like Things Viruses may be referred to often as the smallest infectious things. But there are some smaller contenders. Some of the agents of plant disease lack even a viral coat and are merely small strings of plain, or "naked," RNA. These particles are called viroids. They are believed to be a more primitive version of ordinary viruses. Viroids Scientists in the 1970s began discovering even simpler and smaller virus-like organisms that can cause disease. Viroids contain only RNA, but lack an envelope and capsid. Agricultural researchers found they caused problems in potatoes, tomatoes, and some fruit trees, and recently a viroid has been linked to hepatitis D. But maybe viroids aren't the smallest infectious agents all. Prions Do you recall hearing about Mad Cow Disease? This is an ailment that affects the animals' brains and is also called bovine spongiform encephalopathy because it makes the brain appear holey, like a sponge. There is a human form of this disease called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Some scientists now believe these brain illnesses are among a few diseases caused by an infectious agents called prions . Prions are not even DNA or RNA, but simply proteins. They are thought to be misshapen or abnormal versions of proteins normally found in animals or people. Very little is known about prions. Scientists suggest that they spread when a prion comes into contact with the normal version of the protein and causes the normal protein to change shape and become a prion, too. Visit  HYPERLINK "http://www.microbeworld.org/news/articles/all_prions.aspx" All About Prions in the News section to learn more details about prions. Unlike other infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and viroids, prions do not have the nucleic acids DNA or RNA. Prions are proteins that have the ability to transmit diseases, a finding that defied scientific expectations. There is still much debate about how they work, but scientists think these rogue proteins direct the host to create abnormal proteins that can cause serious neurological disease in animals and humans. Prions are blamed for scrapie in sheep, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) in cattle, and its human variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Some scientists suspect that prions may be responsible for Alzheimers disease.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/meetmicros/viruses/cowpea.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Jean Yves-Sgro  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/meetmicros/viruses/rotavirus.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Rotavirus Courtesy CDC  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.microbeworld.org/images/meetmicros/viruses/influenzaA.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Type A flu virus Courtesy CDC Many more interesting facts about viruses can be found throughout this website. You can also find a lot more detailed information and several photos of viruses at  HYPERLINK "http://library.thinkquest.org/23054/gather/index.shtml" \t "_blank" Hidden Killers: Deadly Viruses. And you'll find a great collection of virus portraits at  HYPERLINK "http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/Big_Virology/BVHomePage.html" \t "_blank" The Big Picture Book of Viruses. This article is about biological infectious particles. For other uses, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_%28disambiguation%29" \o "Virus (disambiguation)" Virus (disambiguation). Viruses HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Herpes_simpex_virus.jpg" \o "Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Herpes_simpex_virus.jpg/200px-Herpes_simpex_virus.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification" \o "Virus classification" Virus classificationGroup: IVII GroupsI:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsDNA_virus" \o "DsDNA virus" dsDNA viruses II:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SsDNA_virus" \o "SsDNA virus" ssDNA viruses III:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsRNA_virus" \o "DsRNA virus" dsRNA viruses IV:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-sense_ssRNA_virus" \o "Positive-sense ssRNA virus" (+)ssRNA viruses V:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative-sense_ssRNA_virus" \o "Negative-sense ssRNA virus" (-)ssRNA viruses VI:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SsRNA-RT_virus" \o "SsRNA-RT virus" ssRNA-RT viruses VII:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus" \o "DsDNA-RT virus" dsDNA-RT virusesA virus (from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" \o "Latin" Latin noun virus, meaning  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin" \o "Toxin" toxin or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison" \o "Poison" poison) is a sub- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopic" \o "Microscopic" microscopic particle (ranging in size from 20300  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano" \o "Nano" n HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre" \o "Metre" m) that can  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_diseases" \o "Infectious diseases" infect the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29" \o "Cell (biology)" cells of a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological" \o "Biological" biological  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" \o "Organism" organism. Viruses can replicate themselves only by infecting a host cell. They therefore cannot reproduce on their own. At the most basic level, viruses consist of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_material" \o "Genetic material" genetic material contained within a protective  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" \o "Protein" protein coat called a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsid" \o "Capsid" capsid. They infect a wide variety of organisms: both  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote" \o "Eukaryote" eukaryotes (animals, plants,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist" \o "Protist" protists, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" \o "Fungi" fungi) and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote" \o "Prokaryote" prokaryotes ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" \o "Bacteria" bacteria and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" \o "Archaea" archaea). A virus that infects bacteria is known as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage" \o "Bacteriophage" bacteriophage, often shortened to phage. The study of viruses is known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virology" \o "Virology" virology and people who study viruses are known as virologists. Viruses cause several serious human diseases, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" \o "AIDS" AIDS,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza" \o "Influenza" influenza and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabies" \o "Rabies" rabies. Therapy is difficult for viral diseases as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" \o "Antibiotic" antibiotics have no effect on viruses and few  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug" \o "Antiviral drug" antiviral drugs are known. The best way to prevent viral diseases is with a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" \o "Vaccine" vaccine, which produces  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_%28medical%29" \o "Immunity (medical)" immunity. It has been argued extensively whether viruses are living organisms. Most virologists consider them non-living,[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed] as they do not meet all the criteria of the generally accepted definition of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life" \o "Life" life. They do not respond to changes in the environment, which is a trait among living organisms. Contents [ HYPERLINK "javascript:toggleToc()" hide]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Discovery#Discovery" 1 Discovery  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Origins#Origins" 2 Origins  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Classification#Classification" 3 Classification  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Structure#Structure" 4 Structure  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Size#Size" 4.1 Size  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Genome#Genome" 5 Genome  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Nucleic_acid#Nucleic_acid" 5.1 Nucleic acid  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Shape#Shape" 5.2 Shape  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Strandedness#Strandedness" 5.3 Strandedness  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Sense#Sense" 5.4 Sense  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Genome_size#Genome_size" 5.5 Genome size  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Replication#Replication" 6 Replication  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Lytic_or_lysogenic#Lytic_or_lysogenic" 6.1 Lytic or lysogenic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Lytic_cycle#Lytic_cycle" 6.1.1 Lytic cycle  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Lysogenic_cycle#Lysogenic_cycle" 6.1.2 Lysogenic cycle  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Bacteriophages#Bacteriophages" 6.2 Bacteriophages  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "DNA_viruses#DNA_viruses" 6.3 DNA viruses  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "RNA_viruses#RNA_viruses" 6.4 RNA viruses  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Reverse_transcribing_viruses#Reverse_transcribing_viruses" 6.5 Reverse transcribing viruses  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Lifeform_debate#Lifeform_debate" 7 Lifeform debate  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Viruses_and_disease#Viruses_and_disease" 8 Viruses and disease  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Epidemics#Epidemics" 8.1 Epidemics  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Detection.2C_purification_and_diagnosis#Detection.2C_purification_and_diagnosis" 8.2 Detection, purification and diagnosis  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Prevention_and_treatment#Prevention_and_treatment" 8.3 Prevention and treatment  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Potential_uses_in_therapy#Potential_uses_in_therapy" 8.4 Potential uses in therapy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Applications#Applications" 9 Applications  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Life_sciences#Life_sciences" 9.1 Life sciences  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Materials_science_and_nanotechnology#Materials_science_and_nanotechnology" 9.2 Materials science and nanotechnology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Weapons#Weapons" 9.3 Weapons  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Etymology#Etymology" 10 Etymology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Philosophy#Philosophy" 11 Philosophy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "See_also#See_also" 12 See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "Footnotes#Footnotes" 13 Footnotes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "References#References" 14 References  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "External_links#External_links" 15 External links [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=1" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Discovery" edit] Discovery  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Viren22.jpg" \o "Computer-generated image of virions"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Viren22.jpg/200px-Viren22.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Viren22.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Computer-generated image of virions Viral diseases such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabies" \o "Rabies" rabies,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_fever" \o "Yellow fever" yellow fever and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" \o "Smallpox" smallpox have affected humans for many centuries. There is hieroglyphical evidence of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio" \o "Polio" polio in the ancient Egyptian empire, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-Lewis_2000#_note-Lewis_2000" \o "" [1] however, the cause of these diseases was unknown at the time. In 1717,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Mary_Wortley_Montagu" \o "Lady Mary Wortley Montagu" Mary Montagu, the wife of an English ambassador to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman Empire, observed local women  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculation" \o "Inoculation" inoculating their children against  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" \o "Smallpox" smallpox. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-Behbehani_1983#_note-Behbehani_1983" \o "" [2] In the late 18th century,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenner" \o "Edward Jenner" Edward Jenner observed and studied Miss Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had previously caught  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowpox" \o "Cowpox" cowpox and was subsequently found to be immune to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" \o "Smallpox" smallpox, a similar, but devastating virus. Jenner developed the first  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" \o "Vaccine" vaccine based on these findings; after lengthy (but successful)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination" \o "Vaccination" vaccination campaigns the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" \o "World Health Organization" World Health Organization (WHO) certified the eradication of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" \o "Smallpox" smallpox in 1979. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-WHO_Meeting_Agenda#_note-WHO_Meeting_Agenda" \o "" [3] In the late 19th century  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Chamberland" \o "Charles Chamberland" Charles Chamberland developed a porcelain filter with pores small enough to filter viruses, yet retain all viable bacteria. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-Horzinek_1997#_note-Horzinek_1997" \o "" [4]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitri_Ivanovski" \o "Dimitri Ivanovski" Dimitri Ivanovski used this filter to study  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" \o "Tobacco mosaic virus" tobacco mosaic virus. He published experiments showing that crushed leaf extracts of infected tobacco plants were still infectious after filtering through such filters. At about the same time, several others documented filterable disease-causing agents, with several independent experiments showing that viruses were different from bacteria, yet they could also cause disease in living organisms. These experiments showed that viruses are orders of magnitudes smaller than bacteria. The term virus was coined by the Dutch microbiologist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" \o "Martinus Beijerinck" Martinus Beijerinck. In the early 20th century,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Twort" \o "Frederick Twort" Frederick Twort discovered that bacteria could be attacked by viruses.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_d%27Herelle" \o "Felix d'Herelle" Felix d'Herelle, working independently, showed that a preparation of viruses caused areas of cellular death on thin  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_culture" \o "Cell culture" cell cultures spread on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agar" \o "Agar" agar. Counting the dead areas allowed him to estimate the original number of viruses in the suspension. The invention of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscopy" \o "Electron microscopy" Electron microscopy provided the first look at viruses. In 1935  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell_Stanley" \o "Wendell Stanley" Wendell Stanley crystallised the tobacco mosaic virus and found it to be mostly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" \o "Protein" protein. A short time later the virus was separated into protein and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid" \o "Nucleic acid" nucleic acid parts. In 1939,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" \o "Max Delbrck" Max Delbrck and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E.L._Ellis&action=edit" \o "E.L. Ellis" E.L. Ellis demonstrated that, in contrast to cellular organisms, bacteriophage reproduce in "one step", rather than exponentially. A major problem for early virologists was the inability to propagate viruses on sterile culture media, as is done with cellular microorganisms. This limitation required medical virologists to infect living animals with infectious material, which is dangerous. The first breakthrough came in 1931, when  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_William_Goodpasture" \o "Ernest William Goodpasture" Ernest William Goodpasture demonstrated the growth of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza" \o "Influenza" influenza and several other viruses in fertile chicken eggs. However, many viruses would not grow in chicken eggs, and a more flexible technique was needed for propagation of viruses. The solution came in 1949 when  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" \o "John Franklin Enders" John Franklin Enders,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Weller" \o "Thomas H. Weller" Thomas H. Weller and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" \o "Frederick Chapman Robbins" Frederick Chapman Robbins together developed a technique to grow  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio_virus" \o "Polio virus" polio virus in cultures of living animal cells. Their methods have since been extended and applied to the growth of many viruses and other infectious agents that do not grow on sterile culture media. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=2" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Origins" edit] Origins The origins of modern viruses are not entirely clear. It may be that no single mechanism can account for all viruses. They do not  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" \o "Fossil" fossilize well, so  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" \o "Molecular biology" molecular techniques have been the most useful means of hypothesising how they arose. Research in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfossil" \o "Microfossil" microfossil identification and molecular biology may yet discern fossil evidence dating to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archean" \o "Archean" Archean or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoic" \o "Proterozoic" Proterozoic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eon_%28geology%29" \o "Eon (geology)" eons. Two main hypotheses currently exist. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] Small viruses with only a few genes may be runaway stretches of nucleic acid originating from the genome of a living organism. Their genetic material could have been derived from transferable genetic elements such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid" \o "Plasmid" plasmids or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon" \o "Transposon" transposons, which are prone to moving within, leaving, and entering genomes. Viruses with larger genomes, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poxvirus" \o "Poxvirus" poxviruses, may have once been small cells which parasitised larger host cells. Over time, genes not required by their parasitic lifestyle would have been lost in a streamlining process known as retrograde-evolution or reverse-evolution. The bacteria  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsia" \o "Rickettsia" Rickettsia and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydia" \o "Chlamydia" Chlamydia are living cells that, like viruses, can only reproduce inside host cells. They lend credence to the streamlining hypothesis, as their parasitic lifestyle is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a host cell. It is hypothetically possible that viruses represent a primitive form of self replicating DNA and are a precursor to life as it is presently defined. Other infectious particles which are even simpler in structure than viruses include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viroid" \o "Viroid" viroids,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_%28biology%29" \o "Satellite (biology)" satellites, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion" \o "Prion" prions. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=3" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Classification" edit] Classification For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification" \o "Virus classification" Virus classification. Baltimore classificationGroupContainsI HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsDNA_virus" \o "DsDNA virus" dsDNA virusesII HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SsDNA_virus" \o "SsDNA virus" ssDNA virusesIII HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsRNA_virus" \o "DsRNA virus" dsRNA virusesIV HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-sense_ssRNA_virus" \o "Positive-sense ssRNA virus" (+)ssRNA virusesV HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative-sense_ssRNA_virus" \o "Negative-sense ssRNA virus" (-)ssRNA virusesVI HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SsRNA-RT_virus" \o "SsRNA-RT virus" ssRNA-RT virusesVII HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus" \o "DsDNA-RT virus" dsDNA-RT virusesss: single-stranded, ds: double stranded RT: reverse transcribingIn  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy" \o "Taxonomy" taxonomy, the classification of viruses is rather difficult due to the lack of a fossil record and the dispute over whether they are living or non-living. They do not fit easily into any of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_%28biology%29" \o "Domain (biology)" domains of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classification" \o "Biological classification" biological classification and therefore classification begins at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_%28biology%29" \o "Family (biology)" family rank. However, the domain name of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acytota" \o "Acytota" Acytota (without cells) has been suggested. This would place viruses on a par with the other domains of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eubacteria" \o "Eubacteria" Eubacteria,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" \o "Archaea" Archaea, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukarya" \o "Eukarya" Eukarya. Not all families are currently classified into orders, nor all genera classified into families. As an example of viral classification, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_pox" \o "Chicken pox" chicken pox virus belongs to family  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpesviridae" \o "Herpesviridae" Herpesviridae, subfamily  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphaherpesvirinae" \o "Alphaherpesvirinae" Alphaherpesvirinae and genus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicellovirus" \o "Varicellovirus" Varicellovirus. It remains unranked in terms of order. The general structure is as follows.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_%28biology%29" \o "Order (biology)" Order (-virales)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_%28biology%29" \o "Family (biology)" Family (-viridae)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subfamily" \o "Subfamily" Subfamily (-virinae)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus" \o "Genus" Genus (-virus)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" \o "Species" Species (-virus) The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_on_Taxonomy_of_Viruses" \o "International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses" International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) developed the current classification system and put in place guidelines that put a greater weighting on certain virus properties in order to maintain family uniformity. In determining order, taxonomists should consider the type of nucleic acid present, whether the nucleic acid is single- or double-stranded, and the presence or absence of an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_%28biology%29" \o "Envelope (biology)" envelope. After these three main properties, other characteristics can be considered: the type of host, the capsid shape, immunological properties and the type of disease it causes. In addition to this classification system, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" \o "Nobel Prize" Nobel Prize-winning biologist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Baltimore" \o "David Baltimore" David Baltimore devised the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification" \l "Baltimore_classification" \o "Virus classification" Baltimore classification system. This places a virus into one of seven Groups, which distinguish viruses based on their mode of replication and genome type. The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=4" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Structure" edit] Structure A complete virus particle, known as a virion, is little more than a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" \o "Gene" gene transporter, consisting in its simplest form of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid" \o "Nucleic acid" nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" \o "Protein" protein called a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsid" \o "Capsid" capsid. A capsid is composed of proteins encoded by the viral  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" \o "Genome" genome and its shape serves as the basis for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29" \o "Morphology (biology)" morphological distinction. Virally coded protein subunits - sometimes called protomers - will self-assemble to form the capsid, generally requiring the presence of the virus genome - however, many complex viruses code for proteins which assist in the construction of their capsid. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoprotein" \o "Nucleoprotein" nucleoproteins, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid. In general, there are four main morphological virus types: ImageHelical viruses HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tobacco_mosaic_virus_structure.png" \o "Diagram of a helical capsid"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Tobacco_mosaic_virus_structure.png/200px-Tobacco_mosaic_virus_structure.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tobacco_mosaic_virus_structure.png" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Diagram of a helical capsidHelical capsids are composed of a single type of subunit stacked around a central axis to form a helical structure which may have a central cavity, or hollow tube. This arrangement results in rod-shaped or filamentous virions: these can be anything from short and highly rigid, to long and very flexible. The genetic material - generally single-stranded RNA, but also ssDNA in the case of certain phages - is bound into the protein helix, by charge interactions between the negatively-charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein. Overall, the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it, while the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of protomers. The well-studied  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" \o "Tobacco mosaic virus" Tobacco mosaic virus is an example of a helical virus.ImageIcosahedral viruses HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Coronaviruses_004_lores.jpg" \o "Electron micrograph of icosahedral virions"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Coronaviruses_004_lores.jpg/200px-Coronaviruses_004_lores.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Coronaviruses_004_lores.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Electron micrograph of icosahedral virionsIcosahedral capsid symmetry results in a spherical appearance of viruses at low magnification but actually consists of capsomers arranged in a regular geometrical pattern, similar to a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_%28soccer%29" \o "Football (soccer)" soccer ball, hence they are not truly "spherical". Capsomers are ring shaped structures constructed from five to six copies of protomers. These associate via  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond" \o "Chemical bond" non-covalent bonding to enclose the viral nucleic acid, though generally less intimately than helical capsids, and may involve one or more protomers. Icosahedral architecture was employed by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckminster_Fuller" \o "Buckminster Fuller" R. Buckminster-Fuller in his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic_dome" \o "Geodesic dome" geodesic dome, and is the most efficient way of creating an enclosed robust structure from multiple copies of a single protein. The number of proteins required to form a spherical virus capsid is denoted by the T-number, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-triang#_note-triang" \o "" [6] where 60t proteins are necessary. In the case of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B" \o "Hepatitis B" hepatitis B virus the T-number is 4, therefore 240 proteins assemble to form the capsid.ImageEnveloped viruses HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HIV_Viron.png" \o "Diagram of enveloped HIV"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/HIV_Viron.png/200px-HIV_Viron.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HIV_Viron.png" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Diagram of enveloped  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" \o "HIV" HIVIn addition to a protein capsid many viruses are able to envelope themselves in a modified form of one of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membranes" \o "Cell membranes" cell membranes - the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell, or from internal membranes such as nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum - thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_envelope" \o "Viral envelope" viral envelope. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome; however the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present are entirely host-coded. The Influenza virus and HIV use this strategy. The viral envelope can give a virion a few distinct advantages over other capsid-only virions, such as protection from enzymes and certain chemicals. The proteins in it can include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoprotein" \o "Glycoprotein" glycoproteins functioning as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_%28biochemistry%29" \o "Receptor (biochemistry)" receptor molecules, allowing host cells to recognise and bind these virions, resulting in the possible uptake of the virion into the cell. Most enveloped viruses are dependent upon the envelope for infectivity.ImageComplex viruses HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tevenphage.png" \o "Diagram of a bacteriophage"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tevenphage.png/200px-Tevenphage.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tevenphage.png" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Diagram of a bacteriophageThese viruses possess a capsid which is neither purely helical, nor purely icosahedral, and which may possess extra structures such as protein tails or a complex outer wall. Some  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophages" \o "Bacteriophages" bacteriophages have a complex structure consisting of an icosahedral head bound to a helical tail, the latter of which may have a hexagonal base plate with many protruding protein tail fibres. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poxvirus" \o "Poxvirus" Poxviruses are large, complex viruses which have an unusual  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29" \o "Morphology (biology)" morphology. The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disk structure known as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoid" \o "Nucleoid" nucleoid. The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function. The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface. The whole particle is slightly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiomorphic" \o "Pleiomorphic" pleiomorphic, ranging from ovoid to brick shape[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed]. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Relative_scale.svg" \o "The range of sizes shown by viruses, relative to those of other organisms and biomolecules"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/300px-Relative_scale.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Relative_scale.svg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  The range of sizes shown by viruses, relative to those of other organisms and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomolecule" \o "Biomolecule" biomolecules [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=5" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Size" edit] Size To put viral size into perspective, a medium sized virion next to a flea is roughly equivalent to a human next to a mountain twice the size of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest" \o "Mount Everest" Mount Everest. Some  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filovirus" \o "Filovirus" filoviruses have a total length of up to 1400nm, however their capsid diameters are only about 80nm. The majority of viruses which have been studied have a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsid" \o "Capsid" capsid diameter between 10 and 300  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometres" \o "Nanometres" nanometres. While most viruses are unable to be seen with a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_microscope" \o "Light microscope" light microscope, some are as large or larger than the smallest bacteria and can be seen under high optical magnification. More commonly, both scanning and transmission  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope" \o "Electron microscope" electron microscopes are used to visualise virus particles. A notable exception to the normal viral size range is the recently discovered  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimivirus" \o "Mimivirus" mimivirus, with a diameter of 750nm which is larger than a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma" \o "Mycoplasma" Mycoplasma bacterium. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-robertson#_note-robertson" \o "" [7] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-claverie#_note-claverie" \o "" [8] They also hold the record for the largest viral genome size, possessing about 1000 genes (some bacteria only possess 400) on a genome approximately 1.2  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabase" \o "Megabase" megabases in length. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-raoult#_note-raoult" \o "" [9] Their large genome also contains many genes which are  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_%28biology%29" \o "Homology (biology)" conserved in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-mimi1#_note-mimi1" \o "" [10] The discovery of the virus has led many scientists to reconsider the controversial boundary between living organisms and viruses, which are currently considered as mere mobile genetic elements. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=6" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Genome" edit] Genome Genomic diversity among virusesPropertyParametersNucleic acidDNA RNA Both DNA and RNA ShapeLinear Circular Segmented StrandednessSingle-stranded Double-stranded Double-stranded with regions of single-strandedness  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_%28molecular_biology%29" \o "Sense (molecular biology)" SensePositive sense (+) Negative sense (-) Ambisense (+/-) An enormous variety of genomic structures can be seen among viral species; as a group they contain more structural genomic diversity than the entire kingdoms of either plants, animals, or bacteria HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-flint#_note-flint" \o "" [11]. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=7" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Nucleic acid" edit] Nucleic acid A virus may employ either  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" \o "DNA" DNA or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" \o "RNA" RNA as the nucleic acid. Rarely do they contain both, however  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytomegalovirus" \o "Cytomegalovirus" cytomegalovirus is an exception to this, possessing a DNA core with several  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA" \o "MRNA" mRNA segments. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] Some virus species possess abnormal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide" \o "Nucleotide" nucleotides, such as hydroxymethylcytosine instead of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosine" \o "Cytosine" cytosine, as a normal part of their genome. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=8" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Shape" edit] Shape Viral genomes may be circular, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyomavirus" \o "Polyomavirus" polyomaviruses, or linear, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenovirus" \o "Adenovirus" adenoviruses. The type of nucleic acid is irrelevant to the shape of the genome. Among  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus" \o "RNA virus" RNA viruses, the genome may be divided up into separate parts within the virion, or segmented. All double-stranded RNA genomes, and some single-stranded RNA genomes, are segmented. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] Each segment may code for one protein, and they are usually found together in one capsid. Not all segments are required to be in the same virion for the overall virus to be infectious, as demonstrated by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brome_mosaic_virus" \o "Brome mosaic virus" brome mosaic virus. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=9" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Strandedness" edit] Strandedness A viral genome, irrespective of nucleic acid type, may be either single-stranded or double-stranded. Single-stranded genomes consist of an unpaired nucleic acid, analogous to one-half of a ladder split down the middle. Double-stranded genomes consist of 2 complimentary paired nucleic acids, analogous to a ladder. Some viruses, such as those belonging to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepadnaviridae" \o "Hepadnaviridae" Hepadnaviridae, contain a genome which is partially double-stranded and partially single-stranded. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-flint#_note-flint" \o "" [11] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=10" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Sense" edit] Sense For viruses with RNA as their nucleic acid, the strands are said to be either  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-sense" \o "Positive-sense" positive-sense (also called plus-strand) or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative-sense" \o "Negative-sense" negative-sense (also called minus-strand) depending on whether it is complementary to viral mRNA. Positive-sense viral RNA is identical to viral mRNA and thus can be immediately  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_%28genetics%29" \o "Translation (genetics)" translated by the host cell. Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_polymerase" \o "RNA polymerase" RNA polymerase before translation. DNA nomenclature is similar to RNA nomenclature, in that the coding strand for the viral mRNA is complementary to it (-), and the non-coding strand is a copy of it (+). [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=11" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Genome size" edit] Genome size Genome size in terms of the weight of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotides" \o "Nucleotides" nucleotides varies between species. The smallest genomes code for only four proteins and weigh about 106  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" \o "Atomic mass unit" daltons, while the largest weigh about 108 daltons and code for over one hundred proteins. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus" \o "RNA virus" RNA viruses generally have smaller genome sizes than  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_virus" \o "DNA virus" DNA viruses due to a higher error-rate when replicating, resulting in a maximum upper size limit. Beyond this limit, too many errors in the genome when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive. In contrast, DNA viruses generally have larger genomes due to the high fidelity of their replication enzymes. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-flint#_note-flint" \o "" [11] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=12" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Replication" edit] Replication Viral populations do not grow through  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division" \o "Cell division" cell division, because they are acellular; instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves. A virus can still cause degenerative effects within a cell without causing its death; collectively these are termed cytopathic effects. Released virions can be passed between hosts through either direct contact, often via  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fluids" \o "Body fluids" body fluids, or through a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_%28biology%29" \o "Vector (biology)" vector. In aqueous environments, viruses float free in the water. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=13" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Lytic or lysogenic" edit] Lytic or lysogenic Viruses may have a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytic_cycle" \o "Lytic cycle" lytic or a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysogenic_cycle" \o "Lysogenic cycle" lysogenic cycle, with some viruses capable of carrying out both. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-prescott#_note-prescott" \o "" [5] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=14" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Lytic cycle" edit] Lytic cycle Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytic_cycle" \o "Lytic cycle" Lytic cycle In the lytic cycle, characteristic of virulent phages such as the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T4_phage" \o "T4 phage" T4 phage, host cells will be induced by the virus to begin manufacturing the proteins necessary for virus reproduction. As well as proteins, the virus must also direct the replication of new genomes, the technique used for this varies greatly between virus species but depends heavily on the genome type. The final viral product is assembled spontaneously, though it may be aided by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaperone" \o "Chaperone" molecular chaperones. After the genome has been replicated and the new capsid assembled, the virus causes the cell to be broken open (lysed) to release the virus particles. Some viruses do not lyse the cell but instead exit the cell via the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane" \o "Cell membrane" cell membrane in a process known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocytosis" \o "Exocytosis" exocytosis, taking a small portion of the membrane with them as a viral envelope. As soon as the cell is destroyed the viruses have to find a new host. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=15" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Lysogenic cycle" edit] Lysogenic cycle Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysogenic_cycle" \o "Lysogenic cycle" Lysogenic cycle In contrast, the lysogenic cycle does not result in immediate lysing of the host cell, instead the viral genome integrates into the host DNA and replicates along with it. The virus remains dormant but after the host cell has replicated several times, or if environmental conditions permit it, the virus will become active and enter the lytic phase. The lysogenic cycle allows the host cell to continue to survive and reproduce, and the virus is passed on to all of the cells offspring.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bacteriophage.jpg" \o "A falsely coloured electron micrograph of multiple bacteriophages"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Bacteriophage.jpg/200px-Bacteriophage.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bacteriophage.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  A falsely coloured electron micrograph of multiple  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage" \o "Bacteriophage" bacteriophages [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=16" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Bacteriophages" edit] Bacteriophages  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage" \o "Bacteriophage" Bacteriophages infect specific bacteria by binding to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_%28biochemistry%29" \o "Receptor (biochemistry)" surface receptor molecules and then enter the cell. Within a short amount of time, sometimes just minutes, bacterial  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase" \o "Polymerase" polymerase starts translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell, helper proteins which help assembly of new virions, or proteins involved in cell  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysis" \o "Lysis" lysis. Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane, and in the case of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T4_phage" \o "T4 phage" T4 phage, in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages will be released. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=17" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: DNA viruses" edit] DNA viruses Animal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_virus" \o "DNA virus" DNA viruses, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpesvirus" \o "Herpesvirus" herpesviruses, enter the host via  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis" \o "Endocytosis" endocytosis, the process by which cells take in material from the external environment. Frequently after a chance collision with an appropriate surface receptor on a cell, the virus penetrates the cell, the viral genome is released from the capsid and host polymerases begin transcribing viral mRNA. New virions are assembled and released either by cell lysis or by budding off the cell membrane. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=18" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: RNA viruses" edit] RNA viruses Animal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_viruses" \o "RNA viruses" RNA viruses can be placed into about four different groups depending on their mode of replication. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_%28molecular_biology%29" \o "Sense (molecular biology)" polarity of the RNA largely determines the replicative mechanism, as well as whether the genetic material is single-stranded or double-stranded. Some  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus" \o "RNA virus" RNA viruses are actually DNA based but use an RNA-intermediate to replicate. RNA viruses are heavily dependent upon virally encoded  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_replicase" \o "RNA replicase" RNA replicase to create copies of their genomes. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=19" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Reverse transcribing viruses" edit] Reverse transcribing viruses  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcribing_viruses" \o "Reverse transcribing viruses" Reverse transcribing viruses are viruses that replicate using reverse transcription, which is the formation of DNA from an RNA template. Those viruses containing RNA genomes use a DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas those containing DNA genomes use an RNA intermediate during genome replication. Both types of reverse transcribing viruses use the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase" \o "Reverse transcriptase" reverse transcriptase enzyme to carry out the nucleic acid conversion. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=20" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Lifeform debate" edit] Lifeform debate  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rotavirus_TEM_B82-0337_lores.jpg" \o "Multiple rotavirus virions"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Rotavirus_TEM_B82-0337_lores.jpg/200px-Rotavirus_TEM_B82-0337_lores.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rotavirus_TEM_B82-0337_lores.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Multiple  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotavirus" \o "Rotavirus" rotavirus virions Argument continues over whether viruses are truly alive. According to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Code" \o "United States Code" United States Code, they are considered  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism" \o "Microorganism" microorganisms in the sense of biological weaponry and malicious use. Scientists, however, are divided. Things become complicated as they look at simple viruses,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viroids" \o "Viroids" viroids and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prions" \o "Prions" prions. Viruses resemble other organisms in that they possess nucleic acid, and can respond - in infected cells - to their environment in a limited fashion. They can also reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through simple self-assembly. Viruses do not have a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29" \o "Cell (biology)" cell structure, regarded as the basic unit of life. Additionally, although they reproduce, they do not metabolise on their own and therefore require a host cell to replicate and synthesise new products. Bacterial species such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsia" \o "Rickettsia" Rickettsia and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydia" \o "Chlamydia" Chlamydia, while living organisms, are even unable to reproduce outside of a host cell. An argument can be made that all accepted forms of life use  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division" \o "Cell division" cell division to reproduce, whereas all viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. The comparison is drawn between viral self-assembly and the autonomous growth of non-living  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization" \o "Crystallization" crystals. Virus self-assembly within host cells also has implications for the study of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_life" \o "Origin of life" origin of life, as it lends credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed]. If viruses are considered alive, then the criteria specifying life will have been permanently changed, leading scientists to question what the basic prerequisite of life is. The standards required to call something artificially alive would be reduced and the prospect of creating  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_life" \o "Artificial life" artificial life would be enhanced. If viruses were said to be alive, the question could follow of whether even smaller infectious particles, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viroid" \o "Viroid" viroids and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion" \o "Prion" prions, are alive. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=21" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Viruses and disease" edit] Viruses and disease For more examples of diseases caused by viruses see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_infectious_diseases" \o "List of infectious diseases" List of infectious diseases Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold" \o "Common cold" common cold,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza" \o "Influenza" the flu,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickenpox" \o "Chickenpox" chickenpox and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_sores" \o "Cold sores" cold sores. Many serious diseases such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola" \o "Ebola" Ebola,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" \o "AIDS" AIDS,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_flu" \o "Avian flu" avian flu and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS" \o "SARS" SARS are also caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulence" \o "Virulence" virulence. Other diseases are under investigation as to whether they too have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Herpesvirus_Six" \o "Human Herpesvirus Six" Human Herpesvirus Six (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" \o "Multiple sclerosis" multiple sclerosis and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome" \o "Chronic fatigue syndrome" chronic fatigue syndrome. Recently it was also shown that cervical cancer is partially caused by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papillomavirus" \o "Papillomavirus" papillomavirus, representing evidence in humans of a link existing between cancer and an infective agent. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-BBC_1999#_note-BBC_1999" \o "" [12] There is current controversy over whether the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borna_virus" \o "Borna virus" borna virus, previously thought of as causing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology" \o "Neurology" neurological disease in horses, could be responsible for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry" \o "Psychiatry" psychiatric illness in humans. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-Chen_1999#_note-Chen_1999" \o "" [13] Viruses have many different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which largely depends on the species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysis" \o "Lysis" lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicellular_organism" \o "Multicellular organism" multicellular organisms, if enough cells die the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although many viruses result in the disruption of healthy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis" \o "Homeostasis" homeostasis, resulting in disease, they may also exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" \o "Herpes simplex virus" herpes simplex virus, which cause  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldsore" \o "Coldsore" coldsores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=22" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Epidemics" edit] Epidemics  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ebola_Virus_TEM_PHIL_1832_lores.jpg" \o "The Ebola virus"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ebola_Virus_TEM_PHIL_1832_lores.jpg/200px-Ebola_Virus_TEM_PHIL_1832_lores.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ebola_Virus_TEM_PHIL_1832_lores.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola" \o "Ebola" Ebola virus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Marburg_virions_TEM_275_lores.jpg" \o "The Marburg virus"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Marburg_virions_TEM_275_lores.jpg/200px-Marburg_virions_TEM_275_lores.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Marburg_virions_TEM_275_lores.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_virus" \o "Marburg virus" Marburg virus For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epidemics" \o "List of epidemics" List of epidemics. A number of highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoviridae" \o "Filoviridae" Filoviridae. Filoviruses are filament-like viruses that cause  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" \o "Viral hemorrhagic fever" viral hemorrhagic fever, and include the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola" \o "Ebola" Ebola and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_virus" \o "Marburg virus" Marburg viruses. The Marburg virus attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola" \o "Angola" Angola. Beginning in October 2004 and continuing into 2005, the outbreak was the world's worst epidemic of any kind of viral hemorrhagic fever. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-bbc#_note-bbc" \o "" [14]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" \o "Indigenous peoples of the Americas" Native American populations were devastated by contagious diseases, particularly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" \o "Smallpox" smallpox, brought to the Americas by European colonists. It is unclear how many Native Americans were killed by foreign diseases after the arrival of Columbus in the Americas, but the numbers have been estimated to be close to 70% of the indigenous population. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-smallpoxhistory#_note-smallpoxhistory" \o "" [15] The damage done by this disease may have significantly aided European attempts to displace or conquer the native population. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=23" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Detection, purification and diagnosis" edit] Detection, purification and diagnosis In the laboratory, several techniques for growing and detecting viruses exist. Purification of viral particles can be achieved using  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_centrifugation" \o "Differential centrifugation" differential centrifugation,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopycnic_centrifugation" \o "Isopycnic centrifugation" isopycnic centrifugation, precipitation with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_sulfate" \o "Ammonium sulfate" ammonium sulfate or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" \o "Ethylene glycol" ethylene glycol, and removal of cell components from a homogenised cell mixture using  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_solvent" \o "Organic solvent" organic solvents or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" \o "Enzyme" enzymes to leave the virus particles in solution. Assays to detect and quantify viruses include:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Plaque_assay_macro.jpg" \o "A viral plaque assay"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Plaque_assay_macro.jpg/180px-Plaque_assay_macro.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Plaque_assay_macro.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  A  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_plaque" \o "Viral plaque" viral plaque  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assay" \o "Assay" assay  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemagglutination_assay" \o "Hemagglutination assay" Hemagglutination assays, which quantitatively measure how many virus particles are in a solution of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cells" \o "Red blood cells" red blood cells by the amount of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutination_%28biology%29" \o "Agglutination (biology)" agglutination the viruses cause between them. This occurs as many viruses are able to bind to the surface of one or more red blood cells. Direct counts using an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope" \o "Electron microscope" electron microscope. A dilute mixture of virus particles and beads of known size are sprayed onto a special sheet and examined under high magnification. The virions are counted and the number extrapolated to estimate the number of virions in the undiluted mixture.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_plaque" \o "Viral plaque" Plaque assays involve growing a thin layer of host cells onto a culture dish and adding a dilute mixture of virions onto it. The virions will infect and kill the cells they land on, producing holes in the cell layer known as plaques. The number of plaques can be counted and the number of virions estimated from it. Detection and subsequent isolation of new viruses from patients is a specialised laboratory subject. Normally it requires the use of large facilities, expensive equipment, and trained specialists such as technicians,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologist" \o "Molecular biologist" molecular biologists, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virologist" \o "Virologist" virologists. Often, this effort is undertaken by state and national governments and shared internationally through organizations like the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" \o "World Health Organization" World Health Organization. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=24" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Prevention and treatment" edit] Prevention and treatment Because viruses use the machinery of a host cell to reproduce and also reside within them, they are difficult to eliminate without killing the host cell. The most effective  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" \o "Medicine" medical approaches to viral diseases so far are  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination" \o "Vaccination" vaccinations to provide resistance to infection, and drugs which treat the symptoms of viral infections. Patients often ask for, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Practitioner" \o "General Practitioner" physicians often prescribe,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" \o "Antibiotic" antibiotics. These are useless against viruses, and their misuse against viral infections is one of the causes of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" \o "Antibiotic resistance" antibiotic resistance in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterium" \o "Bacterium" bacteria. However, in life-threatening situations the prudent course of action is to begin a course of antibiotic treatment while waiting for test results to determine whether the patient's symptoms are caused by a virus or a bacterial infection[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed]. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=25" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Potential uses in therapy" edit] Potential uses in therapy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virotherapy" \o "Virotherapy" Virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in gene therapy[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed]. Russian doctors have used phages as an alternative to antibiotics for some time[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed]. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=26" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Applications" edit] Applications  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Polio_EM_PHIL_1875_lores.PNG" \o "TEM micrograph of Poliovirus virions."  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Polio_EM_PHIL_1875_lores.PNG/170px-Polio_EM_PHIL_1875_lores.PNG" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Polio_EM_PHIL_1875_lores.PNG" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" \o "Transmission electron microscopy" TEM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph" \o "Micrograph" micrograph of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliovirus" \o "Poliovirus" Poliovirus virions. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=27" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Life sciences" edit] Life sciences Viruses are important to the study of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" \o "Molecular biology" molecular and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_biology" \o "Cellular biology" cellular biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells. The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about many aspects of cell biology. For example, viruses have simplified the study of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" genetics and helped human understanding of the basic mechanisms of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" \o "Molecular genetics" molecular genetics, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication" \o "DNA replication" DNA replication,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_%28genetics%29" \o "Transcription (genetics)" transcription,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_processing" \o "RNA processing" RNA processing,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_%28genetics%29" \o "Translation (genetics)" translation,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" \o "Protein" protein transport, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology" \o "Immunology" immunology.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" Geneticists regularly use viruses as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_%28biology%29" \o "Vector (biology)" vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. In similar fashion,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virotherapy" \o "Virotherapy" virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy" \o "Gene therapy" gene therapy. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=28" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Materials science and nanotechnology" edit] Materials science and nanotechnology Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses. From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" citation needed]. Their surface carries specific tools designed to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses, and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface, is precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-fischlechner#_note-fischlechner" \o "" [16] In April 2006 scientists at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" \o "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) created  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" \o "Nanotechnology" nanoscale metallic wires using a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" \o "Genetic engineering" genetically-modified virus. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-mitvirusbattery#_note-mitvirusbattery" \o "" [17] The MIT team was able to use the virus to create a working  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_%28electricity%29" \o "Battery (electricity)" battery with an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density" \o "Energy density" energy density up to three times more than current materials. The potential exists for this technology to be used in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal" \o "Liquid crystal" liquid crystals,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell" \o "Solar cell" solar cells,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cells" \o "Fuel cells" fuel cells, and other electronics in the future.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg" \o "The reconstructed 1918 influenza virus"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/200px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  The reconstructed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918_influenza" \o "1918 influenza" 1918 influenza virus [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=29" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Weapons" edit] Weapons For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" \o "Biological warfare" Biological warfare. The ability of viruses to cause devastating  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic" \o "Epidemic" epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponized for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" \o "Biological warfare" biological warfare. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous 1918 influenza virus in a laboratory. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-cdcnews#_note-cdcnews" \o "" [18] The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" \o "Smallpox" smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. It currently exists in several secure laboratories in the world, and fears that it may be used as a weapon are not totally unfounded. The modern global human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox; if it were to be released, a massive loss of life could be sustained before the virus is brought under control. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=30" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Etymology" edit] Etymology The word is from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" \o "Latin" Latin virus referring to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison" \o "Poison" poison and other noxious substances, first used in English in 1392. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-Etymology_Dictionary#_note-Etymology_Dictionary" \o "" [19] Virulent, from Latin virulentus "poisonous" dates to 1400. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-OED#_note-OED" \o "" [20] A meaning of "agent that causes infectious disease" is first recorded in 1728, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-Etymology_Dictionary#_note-Etymology_Dictionary" \o "" [19] before the discovery of viruses by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" \o "Russians" Russian- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainians" \o "Ukrainians" Ukrainian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist" \o "Biologist" biologist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Ivanovsky" \o "Dmitry Ivanovsky" Dmitry Ivanovsky in 1892. The adjective viral dates to 1948. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-OED2#_note-OED2" \o "" [21] Today, virus is used to describe the biological viruses discussed above and also as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor" \o "Metaphor" metaphor for other parasitically-reproducing things, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme" \o "Meme" memes or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_virus" \o "Computer virus" computer viruses (since 1972). HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-OED#_note-OED" \o "" [20] The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism" \o "Neologism" neologism virion or viron is used to refer to a single infective viral particle. The Latin word is from a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" \o "Proto-Indo-European language" Proto-Indo-European root *weis- "to melt away, to flow," used of foul or malodorous fluids. It is a cognate of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" \o "Sanskrit" Sanskrit vich "poison",  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avestan" \o "Avestan" Avestan via- "poison", Greek ios "poison",  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" \o "Old Church Slavonic" Old Church Slavonic vinja "cherry",  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish" \o "Old Irish" Old Irish fi "poison",  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language" \o "Welsh language" Welsh gwy "fluid"; Latin viscum (see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscous" \o "Viscous" viscous) "sticky substance" is also from the same root. The English plural form of virus is viruses. No reputable dictionary gives any other form, including such "reconstructed" Latin plural forms as viri (which actually means men), and no plural form appears in the Latin corpus (See  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural_of_virus" \o "Plural of virus" plural of virus). Virus does not have a traditional Latin plural because its original sense, poison is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_noun" \o "Mass noun" mass noun like the English word furniture, and, as pointed out above, English use of virus to denote the agent of a disease predates the discovery that these agents are microscopic parasites and thus in principle countable. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=31" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: Philosophy" edit] Philosophy Viruses have attracted attention of philosophers and critics because of their position at the margins of life and their unique method of propagation.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Sontag" \o "Susan Sontag" Susan Sontag argues that viruses have been used deterimentally as metaphors for social phenomena. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-0#_note-0" \o "" [22]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" \o "Gilles Deleuze" Gilles Deleuze and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" \o "Flix Guattari" Flix Guattari use the virus as an example of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizome_%28philosophy%29" \o "Rhizome (philosophy)" rhizomatic being because of its nomadic movement through host organisms. They note that viruses can be responsible for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" \o "Horizontal gene transfer" "aparallel evolution", which they see as disruptive to arborescent phylogentic trees.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" \l "_note-1#_note-1" \o "" [23] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virus&action=edit§ion=32" \l "Structure" \o "Edit section: See also" edit] See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo-en.svg" \o "Wikibooks"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Wikibooks-logo-en.svg/50px-Wikibooks-logo-en.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/" \o "wikibooks:" Wikibooks has more about this subject:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Viruses%2C_Prions%2C_and_Viroids_%28General_Biology%29" \o "wikibooks:Viruses,_Prions,_and_Viroids_(General_Biology)" Viruses, Prions, and Viroids (General Biology)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg" \o ""  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/50px-Commons-logo.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Wikimedia Commons has media related to:  HYPERLINK "http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Viruses" \o "commons:Category:Viruses" Virus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png" \o ""  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wiktionary-logo-en.png/50px-Wiktionary-logo-en.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Look up  HYPERLINK "http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/virus" \o "wiktionary:Special:Search/virus" Virus in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionary" \o "Wiktionary" Wiktionary, the free dictionary.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viruses" \o "List of viruses" List of viruses  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobes" \o "Nanobes" Nanobes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobacteria" \o "Nanobacteria" Nanobacteria  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provirus" \o "Provirus" Provirus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transduction" \o "Transduction" Transduction  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaerosol" \o "Bioaerosol" Bioaerosol  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncolytic_virus" \o "Oncolytic virus" Oncolytic virus SECURITY OF INTERNET For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router" \o "Router" router.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Address_Translation" \o "Network Address Translation" Network Address Translation (NAT) typically has the effect of preventing connections from being established inbound into a computer, whilst permitting connections out. Getting a router in your home improves the security of a home  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" \o "Local area network" LAN; some people consider that they don't need a firewall if they have a router. However, for a small home network, software  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Address_Translation" \o "Network Address Translation" NAT can be used on the computer with the internet connection, providing similar behaviour to a router, and similar levels of security but for a lower cost and lower complexity. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=3" \o "Edit section: Firewalls" edit] Firewalls For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall" \o "Firewall" firewall. A  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_%28networking%29" \o "Firewall (networking)" firewall blocks all traffic except through authorized  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP_and_UDP_port" \o "TCP and UDP port" ports on your computer, thus restricting unfettered access. A  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateful_firewall" \o "Stateful firewall" stateful firewall is a more secure form of firewall, and system administrators often combine a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proxy_firewall&action=edit" \o "Proxy firewall" proxy firewall with a packet-filtering firewall to create a highly secure system; this would be overkill for a home system, but is more common in business. Most home users would use a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_firewall" \o "Personal firewall" software firewall, while some high risk servers and computers might need a hardware firewall. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=4" \o "Edit section: Anti-virus" edit] Anti-virus For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" \o "Malware" malware. Some people or companies with malicious intentions write programs like  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_virus" \o "Computer virus" computer viruses,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_worms" \o "Computer worms" worms,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_%28computing%29" \o "Trojan horse (computing)" trojan horses and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware" \o "Spyware" spyware. These programs are all characterised as being unwanted software that install themselves on your computer through deception. Trojan horses are simply programs that conceal their true purpose or include a hidden functionality that a user would not want. Worms are characterised by having the ability to replicate themselves and viruses are similar except that they achieve this by adding their code onto third party software. Once a virus or worm has infected a computer, it would typically infect other programs (in the case of viruses) and other computers. Viruses also slow down system performance and cause strange system behavior and in many cases do serious harm to computers, either as deliberate, malicious damage or as unintentional side effects. In order to prevent damage by viruses and worms, you need either to completely isolate your computer from dangers (impractical for many people or networks) or install  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antivirus_software" \o "Antivirus software" antivirus software, which typically runs in the background on your computer, detecting any suspicious software and preventing it from running. Some  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" \o "Malware" malware that can be classified as trojans with a limited payload are not detected by most antivirus software and may require the use of other software designed to detect other classes of malware, including spyware. Generally anti-virus software may be also be used to scan all of the files on a computer occasionally for extra peace of mind. Because of the continuing increase in the number of viruses and worms being identified, all good anti-virus software includes a facility to regularly update the data that is used to identify viruses. As well as the commercial antivirus programs, which generally require an annual subscription, there are free antivirus programs available, but the best commercial programs appear to be a little more reliable at present. Several companies provide a comparison of the performance of different antivirus programs which should be useful in making a decision as to which to use. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=5" \o "Edit section: Anti-spyware" edit] Anti-spyware For more details on this topic, see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" \o "Malware" malware. There are several kinds of threats:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware" \o "Spyware" Spyware is software that runs on a computer without the explicit permission of its user. It often gathers private information from a users computer and sends this data over the Internet back to the software manufacturer.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adware" \o "Adware" Adware is software that runs on a computer without the owner's consent, much like spyware. However, instead of taking information, it typically runs in the background and displays random or targeted pop-up advertisements. In many cases, this slows the computer down and may also cause software conflicts. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=6" \o "Edit section: Browser choice" edit] Browser choice  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer" \o "Internet Explorer" Internet Explorer is currently the most widely used  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser" \o "Web browser" web browser in the world  HYPERLINK "http://www.w3schools.com/browsers/browsers_stats.asp" \o "http://www.w3schools.com/browsers/browsers_stats.asp" [1], making it the prime target for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing" \o "Phishing" phishing and many other possible attacks. This has caused  HYPERLINK "http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20041230.html" \o "http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20041230.html" some users to switch to different browsers, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Firefox" \o "Mozilla Firefox" Mozilla Firefox,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_%28web_browser%29" \o "Opera (web browser)" Opera, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" \o "Netscape Navigator" Netscape. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=7" \o "Edit section: See also" edit] See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security" \o "Computer security" Computer security  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_Driven_Networking" \o "Identity Driven Networking" Identity Driven Networking  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_security_policy" \o "Network security policy" Network security policy [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=8" \o "Edit section: External links" edit] External links  HYPERLINK "http://www.microsoft.com/athome/security/downloads/default.mspx" \o "http://www.microsoft.com/athome/security/downloads/default.mspx" Windows XP Security Software Microsoft's Security at Home - Free Downloads & Trials for Windows XP systems  HYPERLINK "http://gigaware.co.uk/default1/support/security/info_software_keystroke_loggers.htm" \o "http://gigaware.co.uk/default1/support/security/info_software_keystroke_loggers.htm" What are keystroke loggers? - detailed advice and information on keystroke loggers, and trojan horses, and how to remove them  HYPERLINK "http://www.security4web.org" \o "http://www.security4web.org" Security4web - detailed advice and information on Internet security for individuals and families  HYPERLINK "http://www.securitybay.co.uk" \o "http://www.securitybay.co.uk" SecurityBay - security news, articles and vulnerability database for security-aware Internet users  HYPERLINK "http://www.wilderssecurity.com/" \o "http://www.wilderssecurity.com/" Wilders Security Forums  HYPERLINK "http://www.dslreports.com/" \o "http://www.dslreports.com/" Broadband Reports - FAQs and forums on internet security etc [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=9" \o "Edit section: Sources of security-related software free for personal use" edit] Sources of security-related software free for personal use [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=10" \o "Edit section: Firewalls" edit] Firewalls  HYPERLINK "http://www.comodo.com/products/free_products.html" \o "http://www.comodo.com/products/free_products.html" Comodo Firewall  HYPERLINK "http://www.zonealarm.com/store/content/catalog/products/sku_list_za.jsp?dc=12bms&ctry=US&lang=en&lid=trial_zaFamily" \o "http://www.zonealarm.com/store/content/catalog/products/sku_list_za.jsp?dc=12bms&ctry=US&lang=en&lid=trial_zaFamily" ZoneAlarm Free Version  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiny_and_Kerio_firewalls" \o "Tiny and Kerio firewalls" Tiny and Kerio firewalls [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=11" \o "Edit section: Spyware blocking, detection and removal" edit] Spyware blocking, detection and removal  HYPERLINK "http://www.download.com/SpywareBlaster/3000-8022_4-10486084.html?tag=lst-0-1" \o "http://www.download.com/SpywareBlaster/3000-8022_4-10486084.html?tag=lst-0-1" Spyware Blaster  HYPERLINK "http://www.cyberdefender.com" \o "http://www.cyberdefender.com" CyberDefenderFREE  HYPERLINK "http://www.javacoolsoftware.com/spywareguard.html" \o "http://www.javacoolsoftware.com/spywareguard.html" Spyware Guard  HYPERLINK "http://www.safer-networking.org/en/home/index.html" \o "http://www.safer-networking.org/en/home/index.html" Spybot Search and Destroy  HYPERLINK "http://www.lavasoft.com" \o "http://www.lavasoft.com" Ad-Aware (Lavasoft) [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=12" \o "Edit section: Antivirus" edit] Antivirus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avira" \o "Avira" Avira AntiVir PersonalEdition Classic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avast" \o "Avast" Avast Home Edition  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVG_Anti-Virus" \o "AVG Anti-Virus" AVG Anti-Virus Free edition  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ClamWin" \o "ClamWin" ClamWin - Opensource Antivirus for Microsoft Windows [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=13" \o "Edit section: Browser Add-on" edit] Browser Add-on  HYPERLINK "http://crypto.stanford.edu/PwdHash/" \o "http://crypto.stanford.edu/PwdHash/" PwdHash is a Firefox & IE browser extension that transparently converts a user's password into a domain-specific password.  HYPERLINK "https://addons.mozilla.org/search.php?app=firefox&q=&cat=12&type=null&appfilter=null&platform=null&date=year&sort=name&perpage=50&app=firefox" \o "https://addons.mozilla.org/search.php?app=firefox&q=&cat=12&type=null&appfilter=null&platform=null&date=year&sort=name&perpage=50&app=firefox" Firefox Privacy/Security FoxyProxy, Password Hasher, Torbutton [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_security&action=edit§ion=14" \o "Edit section: Remote Surfing" edit] Remote Surfing  HYPERLINK "http://www.mysafe-pc.com/" \o "http://www.mysafe-pc.com/" Remote Safe Computer Is a service that allow you to surf internet and use software in secure way, all in centralized servers is great for internet security Retrieved from " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security" WHAT IS E-MAIL ADD Add Email Links and Link Messages From  HYPERLINK "http://personalweb.about.com/mbiopage.htm" Linda Roeder, Your Guide to  HYPERLINK "http://personalweb.about.com/" Personal Web Pages. FREE Newsletter.  HYPERLINK "http://personalweb.about.com/gi/pages/mmail.htm" Sign Up Now! Adding a Basic Email Link To Your Site If communicating with the readers of your Web site and having them communicate with you is important, then learning to be creative with your email links may be very helpful. Did you know that you can put things in your link so that when your readers click on it there will already be a message for them to start with? You can put a subject in the subject line or a message in the body of the email. This makes sorting your email really easy. You can also have the email sent to several different email addresses if you want to. Let's say that you want to know which page someone is emailing you from, you can put a code or message in the email so that when it comes to you, you will know which page it came from just by seeing it. Maybe you have a list of questions that people can ask you, or different categories of something on your site. You can put different messages on each one so that you will know what your reader wants before you even read the email. Here is a list of some of the things that you can use in your email links: mailto = Tells the email client who to send the email to. subject = This will put a message in the subject line of the email. body = With this option you can place a message in the body of the email. %20 = Leaves a space between words. %0D%0A = Takes your message to the next line. This is similar to the "Return" or "Enter" key on your keyboard. cc = Carbon copy or have the email sent to another email address other than the mailto address. bcc = Blind carbon copy or have the email sent to another email address other that the mailto and cc addresses. This is how you can use these things to help you. First you need to know how to write a basic email link. A basic email link starts very much like a regular link: Text For Link Here What happens in the middle is what is different. You will, of course, want to start with adding your email address so that your readers can send the email to you. This will look something like this: mailto:email@address.com Now that you know that much, you can put together a basic email link: Text For Link Here It will look like this to your readers:  HYPERLINK "mailto:email@address.com" Text For Link Here Go ahead, click on it, it will open your email client so that you could send email, if I was using a real email address that is. Since I'm not using a real email address, you can't really send email with it though. Try replacing the false email address with your own, in your text editor (save the file with a .htm or .html extension first), and see if you can send yourself some email. 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You can create Quizzes, Stories, Poems, start a personal Journal/Diary, play and customize cool games, check your daily horoscope, match your star signs against friends, read and add new words and definitions to our Zillapedia, and more. You can take your quizzes, games and more and post them on other sites, like MySpace, Xanga, LiveJournal and more. Tell your friends about Quizilla and Have fun! To sign up for q Quizilla account you must give us a real email address because we will send you an email to verify your new account. Please double check the email address you enter, it mut be correct or you will not be able to verify your account. If you already tried to register an account but never got the email, you can  HYPERLINK "http://www.quizilla.com/resend_email.html" click here to have it re-sent to your email box. PLEASE NOTE: If you are going to use Quizilla to post pornography, game links or chain letters, leave now. Those types of content will not be allowed and if you are found posting them your account will be deleted and you may be banned from using the site in the future. Please make sure you carefully read  HYPERLINK "http://www.quizilla.com/content_guidelines.html" the guide to what is allowed before you post any content. Top of Form Username: HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Text.1 The username you would like to havePassword: HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Password.1 your password is  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_sensitivity" \t "_blank" case sensetivePassword (again): HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Password.1 enter password again to verify the spellingEmail address: HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Text.1 A valid (real) email address is REQUIRED. This address will be used internally only for verifying your account, sending notifications, etc.Public email address: HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Text.1 The second optional email address that will be displayed to the public. This can spam protected, etc.My Birthday:Month:  HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Select.1 Day:  HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Select.1 Year: 19 HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Select.1  My Gender: HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Option.1 Male (Boy)  HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Option.1 Female (Girl) My Astrological Sign: HTMLCONTROL Forms.HTML:Select.1 (this will only be used to give you personalized horoscopes on yourBottom of Form CHATTING  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nuvola_apps_important.svg" \o ""  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Nuvola_apps_important.svg/40px-Nuvola_apps_important.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET This articlearticle or section has multiple issues: HYPERLINK "javascript:toggleNavigationBar(1);" [hide] Its  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" \o "Wikipedia:Neutral point of view" neutrality or factuality may be compromised by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" \o "Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words" weasel words.Tagged since August 2007. It does not cite any  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" \o "Wikipedia:Citing sources" references or sources. Please help improve this article by citing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" \o "Wikipedia:Verifiability" reliable sources. Tagged since December 2006. It may require general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" \o "Wikipedia:Cleanup" cleanup to meet Wikipedia's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" \o "Wikipedia:Manual of Style" quality standards.Tagged since July 2006. Please help  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit" \o "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit" improve the article or discuss these issues on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Online_chat" \o "Talk:Online chat" talk page. Online  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chat" \o "Chat" chat can refer to any kind of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication" \o "Communication" communication over  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" \o "Internet" Internet, but is primarily meant to refer to direct one-on-one chat or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text-based" \o "Text-based" text-based  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chat_room" \o "Chat room" group chat (formally also known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_conferencing" \o "Synchronous conferencing" synchronous conferencing), using tools such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging" \o "Instant messaging" instant messaging applications HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" \o "Software" computer programs,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" \o "Internet Relay Chat" Internet Relay Chat,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talker" \o "Talker" talkers and possibly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD" \o "MUD" MUDs,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUCK" \o "MUCK" MUCKs,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUSH" \o "MUSH" MUSHes and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOO" \o "MOO" MOOes. While many of the Internet's well-known services offer online chat and messaging services for free, an increasing number of providers are beginning to show strong revenue streams from for-pay services. Again it is the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_service_provider" \o "Adult service provider" adult service providers, profiting from the advent of reliable and high-speed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband" \o "Broadband" broadband, (notably across  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe" \o "Eastern Europe" Eastern Europe) who are at the forefront of the for-pay online chat revolution. For every business traveller engaging in a video call or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_call" \o "Conference call" conference call rather than braving the check-in queue, there are countless  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web" \o "Web" web users replacing traditional conversational means with online chat and messaging. Like  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" \o "Email" email, which has reduced the need for and usage of letters, faxes, and memos, online chat is steadily replacing telephony as the means of office and home communication. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_adopter" \o "Early adopter" early adopters in these areas are undoubtedly teenage users of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging" \o "Instant messaging" instant messaging. It might not be long before  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \o "Short message service" SMS  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_messaging" \o "Text messaging" text messaging usage declines as mobile handsets provide the technology for online chat. Contents [ HYPERLINK "javascript:toggleToc()" hide]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" \l "See_also#See_also" 1 See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" \l "General_terms#General_terms" 1.1 General terms  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" \l "Protocols.2FPrograms#Protocols.2FPrograms" 1.2 Protocols/Programs  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" \l "Chat_programs_supporting_multiple_protocols#Chat_programs_supporting_multiple_protocols" 1.3 Chat programs supporting multiple protocols  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" \l "Online_Chatting_Sites_Supporting_Multiple_Protocols#Online_Chatting_Sites_Supporting_Multiple_Protocols" 1.4 Online Chatting Sites Supporting Multiple Protocols [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit§ion=1" \o "Edit section: See also" edit] See also [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit§ion=2" \o "Edit section: General terms" edit] General terms  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chat_room" \o "Chat room" Chat room  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_chat_site" \o "Web chat site" Web chat site  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_chat" \o "Voice chat" Voice chat VoIP  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP" \o "Voice over IP" Voice over IP  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_support_software" \o "Live support software" Live support software  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_discussion" \o "Online discussion" Online discussion  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_discourse_environment" \o "Online discourse environment" Online discourse environment  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatgroups" \o "Chatgroups" Chatgroups [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit§ion=3" \o "Edit section: Protocols/Programs" edit] Protocols/Programs  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talker" \o "Talker" Talker  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" \o "Internet Relay Chat" Internet Relay Chat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messenger" \o "Instant messenger" Instant messenger  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PalTalk" \o "PalTalk" PalTalk  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galeax&action=edit" \o "Galeax" Galeax  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_%28Unix%29" \o "Talk (Unix)" Talk (Unix)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meetro" \o "Meetro" Meetro  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD" \o "MUD" MUD  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUSH" \o "MUSH" MUSH  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOO" \o "MOO" MOO Mimichat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Talk" \o "Google Talk" Google Talk  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo%21_Messenger" \o "Yahoo! Messenger" Yahoo! Messenger  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSYC" \o "PSYC" PSYC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype" \o "Skype" Skype  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SILC_%28protocol%29" \o "SILC (protocol)" SILC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Live_Messenger" \o "Windows Live Messenger" Windows Live Messenger  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campfire_%28software%29" \o "Campfire (software)" Campfire  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamspeak" \o "Teamspeak" Teamspeak Tangler Chatablanca  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealTimeQuery" \o "RealTimeQuery" RealTimeQuery  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiscali_Chat_%28Java%29&action=edit" \o "Tiscali Chat (Java)" Tiscali Chat (Java) [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit§ion=4" \o "Edit section: Chat programs supporting multiple protocols" edit] Chat programs supporting multiple protocols  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adium" \o "Adium" Adium  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_%28software%29" \o "Pidgin (software)" Pidgin  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meetro" \o "Meetro" Meetro  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_IM" \o "Miranda IM" Miranda IM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_%28instant_messaging_client%29" \o "Trillian (instant messaging client)" Trillian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopete" \o "Kopete" Kopete  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMVU" \o "IMVU" IMVU [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Online_chat&action=edit§ion=5" \o "Edit section: Online Chatting Sites Supporting Multiple Protocols" edit] Online Chatting Sites Supporting Multiple Protocols RadiusIM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meebo" \o "Meebo" Meebo Buddystumbler Retrieved from " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat" WHAT IS SMS MESSAGING The Short Message Service (SMS), often called text messaging, is a means of sending short messages to and from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone" \o "Mobile phone" mobile phones. SMS was originally defined as part of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_System_for_Mobile_Communications" \o "Global System for Mobile Communications" GSM series of standards in 1985 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-GSM_28.2F85#_note-GSM_28.2F85" \o "" [1] as a means of sending messages of up to 160 characters, to and from GSM mobile handsets. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-GSM_03.40#_note-GSM_03.40" \o "" [2] Since then, support for the service has expanded to include alternative mobile standards such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-95" \o "IS-95" ANSI CDMA networks and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_AMPS" \o "Digital AMPS" AMPS,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satphone" \o "Satphone" satellite and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landline" \o "Landline" landline networks. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-landline_SMS#_note-landline_SMS" \o "" [3] Most SMS messages are mobile-to-mobile  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_messaging" \o "Text messaging" text messages, though the standard supports other types of broadcast messaging as well. The term SMS is frequently used in a non-technical sense to refer to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_messages" \o "Text messages" text messages themselves, particularly in non-English-speaking European countries where the GSM system is well-established. Contents [ HYPERLINK "javascript:toggleToc()" hide]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Overview#Overview" 1 Overview  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "History#History" 2 History  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Technical_details#Technical_details" 3 Technical details  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "GSM#GSM" 3.1 GSM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Non-GSM#Non-GSM" 3.2 Non-GSM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Premium-rated_short_messages#Premium-rated_short_messages" 4 Premium-rated short messages  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Quality_in_SMS#Quality_in_SMS" 5 Quality in SMS  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Vulnerabilities#Vulnerabilities" 6 Vulnerabilities  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "See_also#See_also" 7 See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Details#Details" 7.1 Details  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Related_protocols#Related_protocols" 7.2 Related protocols  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "Related_technology#Related_technology" 7.3 Related technology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "References#References" 8 References  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "External_links#External_links" 9 External links [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit§ion=1" \o "Edit section: Overview" edit] Overview The service makes use of a Service Centre, which acts as a store and forward centre for short messages. The Service Centre communicates with the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_land_mobile_network" \o "Public land mobile network" Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" \o "Public switched telephone network" PSTN via Interworking and Gateway  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Switching_Subsystem" \l "Mobile_Switching_Centre_.28MSC.29" \o "Network Switching Subsystem" MSCs. Subscriber originated messages are transported from a handset to a Service Centre, and may be destined for mobile users, subscribers on a fixed network, or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value-added_service" \o "Value-added service" Value-Added Service Providers (VASPs) also known as application terminated. Subscriber terminated messages are transported from the Service Centre to the destination handset, and may originate from mobile users, from fixed network subscribers, or from other sources such as VASPs also known as application originated. The Short Message Service is supported on most digital  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone" \o "Mobile phone" mobile phones and some  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" \o "Personal digital assistant" personal digital assistants with on board wireless telecommunications. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-0#_note-0" \o "" [4] Text enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format, however messages can be delivered to non-enabled phones using  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_synthesis" \o "Speech synthesis" text-to-speech conversion. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-Voice_SMS#_note-Voice_SMS" \o "" [5] [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit§ion=2" \o "Edit section: History" edit] History The idea of adding text messaging to the services of mobile users was latent in many communities of mobile communication services at the beginning of the 1980s. Experts from several of those communities contributed in the discussions on which should be the GSM services. Most thought of SMS as providing a means to alert the individual mobile user, for example, of a deposited voice mail, whereas others had more sophisticated applications in their minds, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry" \o "Telemetry" telemetry. However, few believed that SMS would be used as a means for sending text messages from one mobile user to another. As early as February 1985, after having already been discussed in GSM subgroup WP3, chaired by J. Audestad, SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-GSM_28.2F85#_note-GSM_28.2F85" \o "" [1], both mobile originated and mobile terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices. The discussions on the GSM services were then concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "TeleServices supported by a GSM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_land_mobile_network" \o "Public land mobile network" PLMN". HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-GSM_02.03#_note-GSM_02.03" \o "" [6] Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: Short message Mobile Terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point, Short message Mobile Originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point Short message  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_Broadcast" \o "Cell Broadcast" Cell Broadcast. This was handed over to a new GSM body called IDEG (the Implementation of Data and Telematic Services Experts Group), which had its kickoff in May 1987 under the chairmanship of Friedhelm Hillebrand. The technical standard known today was largely created by IDEG (later WP4) as the two recommendations GSM 03.40 (the two point-to-point services merged together) and GSM 03.41 (cell broadcast). The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Application_Part" \o "Mobile Application Part" Mobile Application Part (MAP) of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_System_7" \o "Signaling System 7" SS7 protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-MAP_phase_1#_note-MAP_phase_1" \o "" [7] MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-MAP_phase_2#_note-MAP_phase_2" \o "" [8]. Since Phase 2, there have been no changes to the Short Message operation packages in MAP, although other operation packages have been enhanced to support CAMEL SMS control. From  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3GPP" \o "3GPP" 3GPP Releases 99 and 4 onwards,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customised_Applications_for_Mobile_networks_Enhanced_Logic" \o "Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic" CAMEL Phase 3 introduced the ability for the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_network" \o "Intelligent network" Intelligent Network (IN) to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-CAMEL_Phase_3#_note-CAMEL_Phase_3" \o "" [9] while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-CAMEL_Phase_4#_note-CAMEL_Phase_4" \o "" [10] CAMEL allows the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_Control_Point" \o "Service Control Point" gsmSCF to block the submission (MO) or delivery (MT) of Short Messages, route messages to destinations other than that specified by the user, and perform real-time billing for the use of the service. Prior to standardized CAMEL control of the Short Message Service, IN control relied on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Switching_Subsystem" \l "Mobile_Switching_Centre_.28MSC.29" \o "Network Switching Subsystem" switch vendor specific extensions to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INAP" \o "INAP" Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP) of SS7. The first commercial SMS message was sent over the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodafone" \o "Vodafone" Vodafone GSM network in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" United Kingdom on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_3" \o "December 3" 3 December  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992, from Neil Papworth of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airwide_Solutions&action=edit" \o "Airwide Solutions" Airwide Solutions HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-First_SMS#_note-First_SMS" \o "" [11] (using a personal computer) to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone (using an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitel" \o "Orbitel" Orbitel 901 handset). The text of the message was "Merry Christmas". HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-Neil_Papworth#_note-Neil_Papworth" \o "" [12] The first SMS typed on a GSM phone is claimed to have been sent by Riku Pihkonen, an engineer student at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia" \o "Nokia" Nokia, in 1993. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-Riku#_note-Riku" \o "" [13] Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-gsmworld#_note-gsmworld" \o "" [14] One factor in the slow takeup of SMS was that operators were slow to set up charging systems, especially for prepaid subscribers, and eliminate billing fraud which was possible by changing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service_center" \o "Short message service center" SMSC settings on individual handsets to use the SMSCs of other operators. Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch-billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages per user reached 35. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-gsmworld#_note-gsmworld" \o "" [14] It is also alleged that the fact that roaming customers, in the early days, rarely received bills for their SMSs after holidays abroad had a boost on text messaging as an alternative to voice calls. SMS was originally designed as part of GSM, but is now available on a wide range of networks, including  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G" \o "3G" 3G networks. However, not all text messaging systems use SMS, and some notable alternate implementations of the concept include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoftBank_Mobile" \o "SoftBank Mobile" J-Phone's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SkyMail&action=edit" \o "SkyMail" SkyMail and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTT_DoCoMo" \o "NTT DoCoMo" NTT Docomo's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_Mail&action=edit" \o "Short Mail" Short Mail, both in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan. E-mail messaging from phones, as popularized by NTT Docomo's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-mode" \o "I-mode" i-mode and the RIM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackBerry" \o "BlackBerry" BlackBerry, also typically use standard mail protocols such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" \o "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol" SMTP over  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" \o "Internet protocol suite" TCP/IP. SMS derives its benefit from two absolute advantages compared to any other form of communication. SMS is the fastest form of communication if measured by actual communication throughput including instances such as the counterpart not being able to take a call, being out of radio coverage, listening to voicemail, put on hold etc. SMS at its worst is a few second slower than a direct voice call or Blackberry wireless e-mail etc, but in the best case is faster by hours or even days than any other form of communication. SMS messages tend to be read within 30 minutes where an email message tends to be read in 48 hours. Commercially SMS is a massive industry in 2006 worth over 80 Billion dollars globally. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-Digital_Life#_note-Digital_Life" \o "" [15]. SMS has an average global price of 11 cents and maintains a near 90% profit margin. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit§ion=3" \o "Edit section: Technical details" edit] Technical details [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit§ion=4" \o "Edit section: GSM" edit] GSM Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service_technical_realisation_%28GSM%29" \o "Short message service technical realisation (GSM)" Short message service technical realisation (GSM) The Short Message Service - Point to Point (SMS-PP) is defined in GSM recommendation 03.40. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-GSM_03.40#_note-GSM_03.40" \o "" [2] GSM 03.41 defines the Short Message Service - Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB) which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-GSM_03.41#_note-GSM_03.41" \o "" [16] Messages are sent to a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service_center" \o "Short message service center" Short Message Service Centre (SMSC) which provides a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_and_forward" \o "Store and forward" store-and-forward mechanism. It attempts to send messages to their recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry. Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both Mobile Terminated (MT), for messages sent to a mobile handset, and Mobile Originating (MO), for those that are sent from the mobile handset, operations are supported. Message delivery is  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_effort_delivery" \o "Best effort delivery" best effort, so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient and delay or complete loss of a message is not uncommon, particularly when sending between networks. Users may choose to request delivery reports, which can provide positive confirmation that the message has reached the intended recipient. Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done using the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Application_Part" \o "Mobile Application Part" Mobile Application Part (MAP) of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_System_7" \o "Signaling System 7" SS7 protocol. Messages are sent with the MAP mo- and mt-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signalling protocol to precisely 140  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octet_%28computing%29" \o "Octet (computing)" octets (140 octets = 140 * 8 bits = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default GSM 7- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit" \o "Bit" bit alphabet (shown below), the 8-bit data alphabet, and the 16-bit  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-16/UCS-2" \o "UTF-16/UCS-2" UCS2 alphabet. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-3GPP_23.038#_note-3GPP_23.038" \o "" [17] Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual Short Message sizes of 160 7- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit" \o "Bit" bit characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. Support of the GSM 7-bit alphabet is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_service" \l "_note-3GPP_23.038#_note-3GPP_23.038" \o "" [17], but characters in languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Korean, Japanese or Slavic languages (e.g. Russian) must be encoded using the 16-bit UCS2  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding" \o "Character encoding" character encoding (see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode" \o "Unicode" Unicode).  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" \o "Routing" Routing data and other  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata" \o "Metadata" metadata is additional to the payload size. GSM 03.38x0x1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8x9xAxBxCxDxExF0x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%40" \o "@" @ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sign" \o "Pound sign"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_sign" \o "Dollar sign" $ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen" \o "Yen"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%92" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_feed" \o "Line feed" LF HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carriage_return" \o "Carriage return" CR HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85" \o "" 1x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underscore" \o "Underscore" _ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9E" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_character" \o "Escape character" ESC HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9F" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89" \o "" 2x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_character" \o "Space character" SP HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclamation_mark" \o "Exclamation mark" ! HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_quote" \o "Double quote" " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_sign" \o "Number sign" # HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency_%28typography%29" \o "Currency (typography)"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percent" \o "Percent" % HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampersand" \o "Ampersand" & HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27" \o "'" ' HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracket" \o "Bracket" ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracket" \o "Bracket" ) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterisk" \o "Asterisk" * HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus_sign" \o "Plus sign" + HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma_%28punctuation%29" \o "Comma (punctuation)" , HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen" \o "Hyphen" - HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_stop" \o "Full stop" . HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_%28punctuation%29" \o "Slash (punctuation)" /3x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_%28number%29" \o "0 (number)" 0 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_%28number%29" \o "1 (number)" 1 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_%28number%29" \o "2 (number)" 2 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_%28number%29" \o "3 (number)" 3 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_%28number%29" \o "4 (number)" 4 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_%28number%29" \o "5 (number)" 5 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_%28number%29" \o "6 (number)" 6 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_%28number%29" \o "7 (number)" 7 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8_%28number%29" \o "8 (number)" 8 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9_%28number%29" \o "9 (number)" 9 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_%28punctuation%29" \o "Colon (punctuation)" : HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolon" \o "Semicolon" ; HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_bracket" \o "Angle bracket" < HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_sign" \o "Equal sign" = HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_bracket" \o "Angle bracket" > HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_mark" \o "Question mark" ?4x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%A1" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A" \o "A" A HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B" \o "B" B HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C" \o "C" C HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D" \o "D" D HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E" \o "E" E HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F" \o "F" F HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G" \o "G" G HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H" \o "H" H HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I" \o "I" I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J" \o "J" J HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K" \o "K" K HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L" \o "L" L HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M" \o "M" M HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N" \o "N" N HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O" \o "O" O5x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P" \o "P" P HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q" \o "Q" Q HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R" \o "R" R HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S" \o "S" S HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T" \o "T" T HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U" \o "U" U HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V" \o "V" V HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W" \o "W" W HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X" \o "X" X HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y" \o "Y" Y HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z" \o "Z" Z HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%A7" \o "" 6x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_mark" \o "Question mark"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A" \o "A" a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B" \o "B" b HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C" \o "C" c HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D" \o "D" d HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E" \o "E" e HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F" \o "F" f HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G" \o "G" g HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H" \o "H" h HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I" \o "I" i HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J" \o "J" j HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K" \o "K" k HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L" \o "L" l HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M" \o "M" m HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N" \o "N" n HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O" \o "O" o7x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P" \o "P" p HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q" \o "Q" q HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R" \o "R" r HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S" \o "S" s HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T" \o "T" t HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U" \o "U" u HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V" \o "V" v HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W" \o "W" w HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X" \o "X" x HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y" \o "Y" y HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z" \o "Z" z HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C" \o ""  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80" \o "" Larger content (known as "long SMS" or " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concatenation" \l "Other_uses_of_concatenation" \o "Concatenation" concatenated SMS") can be sent segmented over multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a user data header (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is inside the payload, the number of characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments, 6 to 8 segment messages are the practical maximum, and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. Short messages can also be used to send binary content such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringtone" \o "Ringtone" ringtones or logos, as well as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-air_programming" \o "Over-the-air programming" Over-the-air programming (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia" \o "Nokia" Nokia's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_message" \o "Smart message" Smart Messaging is by far the most common. The SMS specification has defined a way for an external Terminal Equipment, such as a PC or Pocket PC, to control the SMS functions of a mobile phone. The connection between the Terminal Equipment and the mobile phone can be realized with a serial cable, a Bluetooth link, an infrared link, etc. The interface protocol is based on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayes_command_set" \o "Hayes command set" AT commands. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message). Today, SMS is also used for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" \o "Machine" machine to machine  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication" \o "Communication" communication. For instance, there is an LED display machine controlled by SMS, and some  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_tracking_system" \o "Vehicle tracking system" vehicle tracking companies use SMS for their data  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport" \o "Transport" transport or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry" \o "Telemetry" telemetry needs. SMS usage for these purposes are slowly being superseded by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Packet_Radio_Service" \o "General Packet Radio Service" GPRS services due to their lower overall costs. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit§ion=5" \o "Edit section: Non-GSM" edit] Non-GSM  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.svg" \o ""  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/35px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET This section is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub" \o "Wikipedia:Stub" stub. You can help by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit" \o "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit" expanding it.[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_message_service&action=edit§ion=6" \o "Edit section: Premium-rated short messages" edit] Premium-rated short messages Short messages may be used to provide premium rate services to subscribers of a telephone network. Mobile terminated short messages can be used to deliver digital content such as news alerts, financial information, logos and ring tones. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value-added_service" \o "Value-added service" VASP providing the content submits the message to the mobile operator's SMSC(s) using a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" \o "Internet protocol suite" TCP/IP protocol such as the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_message_peer-to-peer_protocol" \o "Short message peer-to-peer protocol" Short message peer-to-peer protocol (SMPP) or the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI_%28protocol%29" \o "EMI (protocol)" External Machine Interface (EMI). The SMSC delivers the text using the normal Mobile Terminated delivery procedure. The subscribers are charged extra for receiving this premium content, and the amount is typically divided between the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_network_operator" \o "Mobile network operator" mobile network operator and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value-added_service" \o "Value-added service" value added service provider (VASP) either through revenue share or a fixed transport fee. Mobile originated short messages may also be used in a premium-rated manner for services such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televoting" \o "Televoting" televoting. In this case, the VASP providing the service obtains a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_code" \o "Short code" Short Code from the telephone network operator, and subscribers send texts to that number. The payouts to the carriers vary by carrier and the percentages paid are greatest on the lowest priced premium SMS services. Most information providers should expect to pay about 45% of the cost of the premium SMS up front to the carrier. The submission of the text to the SMSC is identical to a standard MO Short Message submission, but once the text is at the SMSC, the Service Centre identifies the Short Code as a premium service. The SC will then direct the content of the text message to the VASP, typically using an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" \o "Internet protocol suite" IP protocol such as SMPP or EMI. Subscribers are charged a premium for the sending of such messages, with the revenue typically shared between the network operator and the VASP. Limitations of short codes include the limitation to national borders (short codes have to be activated in each country where the campaign takes place), as well as being expensive to signup together with mobile operators. An alternative to inbound SMS is based on Long Numbers (international number format, e.g. +44 7624 805000), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long Numbers are internationally available, as well as enabling businesses to have their own number, rather than short codes which are usually shared across a lot of brands. Additionally, Long Numbers are non-premium inbound numbers. [ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_m}~A B C D E F        p q r s t u v w 5 6 7 8 j hoUj hoUj hoUjhoUjhoUjuhoUjhoU ho<j;hoUjhoUhoCJaJhoho5CJ aJ >! d^$IfIkdc$IfK$L$x!634-4 x4ap $IfK$>kd$IfK$L$ 634ap $IfK$ϽE )!wo ! $a$gdoAkd$$IfT!634ap T$IfAkd$$IfT!634ap T   !x!Y9, >kd $IfK$L$!634ap $IfK$$If$Ifrkdg$$IfT4F!!6    34apT t u v : ; < !!s!>kdI $IfK$L$!634ap $If>kdm $IfK$L$!634ap $IfK$8 < = > ? 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?$If -D`M gd@;+ -D`M gd@;+Ff| $$Ifa$m/n///////////// 0!0"0#0$0%0]0^0_0`0a0b0000000004151A1B1331424;4<4R4S44444d5e55555555566n7o77777y8z888888899(9h@;+0JmH sH jh@;+UmH sH h@;+mH sH h@;+CJaJ h@;+0Jh@;+jh@;+UN(9)9u9v99999 : :M:N:W:X:\:]:::::::Y;Z;^;_;;;; < <<<<<<<<d<e<f<<<<<<< = =W=X=뷳jh@;+6U] h@;+6]j& h@;+B*Uphh@;+B*phjh@;+B*Uphh@;+jh@;+Uh@;+0JmH sH jh@;+0JUmH sH h@;+0JmH sH h@;+0JmH sH h@;+mH sH jh@;+UmH sH 2X=\=]=o=p=>>'>(>)>*>+>,>->>>>>>>>??.@/@3@4@@@@@@@AA~AAAAAABB%B&BBBPCQChCiCrCsCCCCCDDDDϯjh@;+UmH sH h@;+0JmH sH h@;+mH sH h@;+0JmH sH jh@;+0JUmH sH h@;+0JmH sH h@;+CJaJh@;+ h@;+6]jh@;+6U]h@;+0J6]<*>+>>H?'DIK_νϽ?!!!!!!!!!y!s#d-D`M \$^#gd@;+ -D`M gd@;+ -D`M gd@;+UkdS $$If0 634ap DDDEEYEZEdEeEGG!H"H$H%HKKKKHIMNOP^  STpquvwx45CD˽̽νϽh@;+h@;+CJaJmH sH h@;+>*B*mH phsH h@;+0JmH sH Ujh@;+0JUmH sH h@;+0JmH sH h@;+mH sH jh@;+UmH sH h@;+0JmH sH >essage_service&action=edit§ion=7" \o "Edit section: Quality in SMS" edit] Quality in SMS The University of Duisburg-Essen, in partnership with mobile messaging provider  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyntec" \o "Tyntec" Tyntec, have developed the study  HYPERLINK "http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/iel5/10386/33015/01547692.pdf?tp=&arnumber=1547692&isnumber=33015" \o "http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/iel5/10386/33015/01547692.pdf?tp=&arnumber=1547692&isnumber=33015" QoS Monitoring for Professional Short-Message-Services in Mobile Networks for SMS messaging to enable the detailed monitoring of SMS transmissions to ensure a greater degree of reliability and a higher average speed of delivery. The new parameters can be used by mobile network operators, third party SMS gateways and mobile network infrastructure software vendors to monitor the transmission of SMS messages and to detect network transmission problems quickly and accurately. 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